Sound values

In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages.^[11]

Examples

Notes

Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants (/b, d, g/Category:Pages with plain IPA) and aspirated plosives (/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows:

Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.

The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers:

Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

Digraphs and letter combinations

Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (⟨ειCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text, οι, υι⟩, pronounced /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA and ⟨αιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, pronounced /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA), there is also ⟨ηι, ωιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, and ⟨ουCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, pronounced /u/Category:Pages with plain IPA. The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨αυCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, ⟨ευCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨ηυCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ are pronounced [av]Category:Pages with plain IPA, [ev]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [iv]Category:Pages with plain IPA in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to [af]Category:Pages with plain IPA, [ef]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [if]Category:Pages with plain IPA.^[27] The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨μπCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨ντCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ stand for [b]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [d]Category:Pages with plain IPA (or [mb]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [nd]Category:Pages with plain IPA); ⟨τζCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ stands for [d͡z]Category:Pages with plain IPA and ⟨τσCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ stands for [t͡s]Category:Pages with plain IPA. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter ⟨γCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal [ŋ]Category:Pages with plain IPA; thus ⟨γγCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨γκCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩ like in the word finger (not like in the word thing). In analogy to ⟨μπCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨ντCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, ⟨γκCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ is also used to stand for [g]Category:Pages with plain IPA before vowels [a]Category:Pages with plain IPA, [o]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [u]Category:Pages with plain IPA, and [ɟ]Category:Pages with plain IPA before [e]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [i]Category:Pages with plain IPA. There are also the combinations ⟨γχCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨γξCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩.

Diacritics

The acute accent in aulós [avˈlos]Category:Pages with Greek IPA ('flute') distinguishes the word from its homograph áulos [ˈailos]Category:Pages with Greek IPA ('immaterial'). The smooth breathing marks the absence of an initial /h/.

In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek and katharevousa, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (άCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), the grave accent (ὰCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), or the circumflex accent (α̃Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text or α̑Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (ἁCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), marking an /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (ἀCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries rough breathing in a word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text) leading to the transliteration rrh.

The vowel letters ⟨α, η, ωCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ᾱι, ηι, ωιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/Category:Pages with plain IPA), which became monophthongized during antiquity.

Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (¨Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), indicating a hiatus.

This system of diacritics was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 257 – c. 185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC.^[28] Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism.^[29] In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos, i.e. simply 'accent'), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.

Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι (ó,ti, 'whatever') from ότι (óti, 'that').^[30]

Romanization

There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script.^[31] The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity.^[32] In this system, ⟨κCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩, the diphthongs ⟨αιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨οιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩); and ⟨ειCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨ουCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩.^[33] Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter ⟨h⟩.^[34] In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨κCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩, and the vowel combinations ⟨αιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩.^[31] The letters ⟨θCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ and ⟨φCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩; ⟨χCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩; and word-initial ⟨ρCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩ as ⟨rh⟩.^[35]

Transcription conventions for Modern Greek^[36] differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription.^[36] Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843),^[36][37] by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names,^[38] by the Library of Congress,^[39] and others.

Origins

During the Mycenaean period, between roughly the 16th and 12th centuries BC, a script called Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the 13th century BC.^[7] Inscription written in the Greek alphabet begin to emerge from the 8th century BC onward. While early samples of the Greek alphabet date from at least 775 BC,^[40] the oldest known substantial and comprehensible Greek inscriptions, such as those on the Dipylon vase, the cup of Nestor and cup of Acesander, date from c. 740/30 BC.^[41] It is accepted that the introduction of the alphabet occurred some time prior to these inscriptions.^{[note 1]} While earlier dates have been proposed,^[42] the Greek alphabet is commonly held to have originated some time in the late 9th^[43] or early 8th century BC,^[44] conventionally around 800 BC.^[1]

The period between the use of the two writing systems, Linear B and the Greek alphabet, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages.^[45] The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages, calling it Φοινικήια γράμματαCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text 'Phoenician letters'.^[46] However, the Phoenician alphabet was limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted in order to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense,^[47] as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.^[48]

Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/Category:Pages with plain IPA (yodh) and /w/Category:Pages with plain IPA (waw) were used for [i] (Ι, iota) and [u] (Υ, upsilon); the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA (aleph) was used for [a] (Α, alpha); the pharyngeal /ʕ/Category:Pages with plain IPA (ʿayin) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron); and the letter for /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA (he) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/Category:Pages with plain IPA (heth) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/Category:Pages with plain IPA (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/Category:Pages with plain IPA (Ω, omega) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ (phi) for /pʰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, Χ (chi) for /kʰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and Ψ (psi) for /ps/Category:Pages with plain IPA. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/Category:Pages with plain IPA and Ψ for /kʰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.

Phoenician			Greek
	aleph	/ʔ/		Α	alpha	/a/, /aː/
	beth	/b/		Β	beta	/b/
	gimel	/ɡ/		Γ	gamma	/ɡ/
	daleth	/d/		Δ	delta	/d/
	he	/h/		Ε	epsilon	/e/, /eː/[note 2]
	waw	/w/		Ϝ	(digamma)	/w/
	zayin	/z/		Ζ	zeta	[zd](?)
	heth	/ħ/		Η	eta	/h/, /ɛː/
	teth	/tˤ/		Θ	theta	/tʰ/
	yodh	/j/		Ι	iota	/i/, /iː/
	kaph	/k/		Κ	kappa	/k/
	lamedh	/l/		Λ	lambda	/l/
	mem	/m/		Μ	mu	/m/
	nun	/n/		Ν	nu	/n/

Phoenician			Greek
	samekh	/s/		Ξ	xi	/ks/Category:Pages with plain IPA
	ʿayin	/ʕ/		Ο	omicron	/o/, /oː/[note 2]
	pe	/p/		Π	pi	/p/
	ṣade	/sˤ/		Ϻ	(san)	/s/
	qoph	/q/		Ϙ	(koppa)	/k/
	reš	/r/		Ρ	rho	/r/
	šin	/ʃ/		Σ	sigma	/s/
	taw	/t/		Τ	tau	/t/
	(waw)	/w/		Υ	upsilon	/u/, /uː/
–				Φ	phi	/pʰ/
–				Χ	chi	/kʰ/
–				Ψ	psi	/ps/Category:Pages with plain IPA
–				Ω	omega	/ɔː/

Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ (san), which had been in competition with Σ (sigma) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ (qoppa), which was redundant with Κ (kappa) for /k/, and Ϝ (digamma), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.

Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon, literally 'ox-turning', after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

Archaic variants

There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/pʰ, kʰ/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek.^[49] These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on a colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen AlphabetsCategory:Articles containing German-language text by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867).^[49]

The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician.^[50] The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet, and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development.^[50] The "blue" (or eastern) type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged.^[50] Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the 5th century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω.^[50][51] In the Old Attic alphabet, ΧΣCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text stood for /ks/Category:Pages with plain IPA and ΦΣCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text for /ps/Category:Pages with plain IPA. ΕCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text was used for all three sounds /e, eː, ɛː/Category:Pages with plain IPA (correspondinɡ to classical Ε, ΕΙ, ΗCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text), and ΟCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text was used for all of /o, oː, ɔː/Category:Pages with plain IPA (corresponding to classical Ο, ΟΥ, ΩCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text).^[51] The letter ΗCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text (heta) was used for the consonant /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA.^[51] Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia: a form of ΛCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text that resembled a Latin L () and a form of Σ that resembled a Latin S ().^[51]

Phoenician model
Southern	"green"									—							—								*	—	—	—	—	—
Western	"red"
Eastern	"light blue"																									—
	"dark blue"
Classic Ionian							—		—											—	—
Modern alphabet		Α	Β	Γ	Δ	Ε	—	Ζ	—	Η	Θ	Ι	Κ	Λ	Μ	Ν	Ξ	Ο	Π	—	—	Ρ	Σ	Τ	Υ	—	Φ	Χ	Ψ	Ω
Sound in Ancient Greek		a	b	g	d	e	w	zd	h	ē	tʰ	i	k	l	m	n	ks	o	p	s	k	r	s	t	u	ks	pʰ	kʰ	ps	ō

*Upsilon is also derived from waw ().

The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia.^[52] By the late 5th century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians.^[52] In c. 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides, the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned the Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of the democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants.^[52][53] Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet".^[52] Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted a few years previously in Macedonia.^[54] By the end of the 4th century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet.^[54]

Letter names

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, bet, or "house", for the /b/Category:Pages with plain IPA sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma.

The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta, ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδαCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text besides λάμβδαCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text;^[55][15] in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδαCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text, reflecting pronunciation.^[15] Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώταCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text in Modern Greek ([ʝ]Category:Pages with plain IPA is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/Category:Pages with plain IPA). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.

Greek alphabet

The names of the letters in spoken Standard Modern Greek

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In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.

In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖCategory:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, indicating an original pronunciation with -ē. In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ιCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text.

The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔCategory:Pages with plain IPA. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable.^[15] Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩, pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o").^[15] The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩, while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩, which at this time was pronounced [y], was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩.^[15]

Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [ˈkapʰa]Category:Pages with plain IPA; also, ήταCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa]Category:Pages with plain IPA in Cypriot.^[56]

Letter shapes

Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.

The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes.^[57] The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive.^[57] This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modeling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles, etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

Inscription		Manuscript		Modern print
Archaic	Classical	Uncial	Minuscule	Lowercase	Uppercase
				α	Α
				β	Β
				γ	Γ
				δ	Δ
				ε	Ε
				ζ	Ζ
				η	Η
				θ	Θ
				ι	Ι
				κ	Κ
				λ	Λ
				μ	Μ
				ν	Ν
				ξ	Ξ
				ο	Ο
				π	Π
				ρ	Ρ
				σ ς	Σ
				τ	Τ
				υ	Υ
				φ	Φ
				χ	Χ
				ψ	Ψ
				ω	Ω

Use for other languages

Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.^[65] For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

Early modern

• Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
• Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500.^[75] The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
• Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans spoken by Orthodox Christians, was apparently written in Greek characters in the late 19th century. In 1957, it was standardized on Cyrillic, and in 1996, a Gagauz alphabet based on Latin characters was adopted (derived from the Turkish alphabet).
• Surguch, a Turkic language, was spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece. It is now written in Latin or Cyrillic characters.
• Urum or Greek Tatar, spoken by Orthodox Christians, used the Greek alphabet.
• Judaeo-Spanish or Ladino, a Jewish dialect of Spanish, has occasionally been published in Greek characters in Greece.^[76]
• The Italian humanist Giovan Giorgio Trissino tried to add some Greek letters (Ɛ ε, Ꞷ ω) to Italian orthography in 1524.^[77]

In mathematics and science

Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation. For many years the Greek alphabet was used by the World Meteorological Organization for naming North Atlantic hurricanes if a season was so active that it exhausted the regular list of storm names. This happened during the 2005 season (when Alpha through Zeta were used), and the 2020 season (when Alpha through Iota were used), after which the practice was discontinued.^[78][79] In May 2021 the World Health Organization announced that the variants of SARS-CoV-2 of the virus would be named using letters of the Greek alphabet to avoid stigma and simplify communications for non-scientific audiences.^[80][81]

Astronomy

Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

International Phonetic Alphabet

Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).^[82] Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:^[83]

On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.

The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda ⟨λCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text⟩, but ⟨ɬCategory:Pages with plain IPA⟩ in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is ⟨ʎCategory:Pages with plain IPA⟩, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase y.

Use as numerals

Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma ⟨Ϝ⟩ for 6, koppa ⟨Ϙ⟩ for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi ⟨Ͳ⟩, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as ⟨ϛ⟩, ⟨ϟ⟩ and ⟨ϡ⟩. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called keraia is added to the right of it.

Use by student fraternities and sororities

In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations".^[84] This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa society at the College of William and Mary in 1776.^[84] The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase Φιλοσοφία Βίου ΚυβερνήτηςCategory:Articles containing Greek-language text (Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs), which means "Love of wisdom, the guide of life" and serves as the organization's motto.^[84] Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by their Greek letter names because the mottos that these names stood for were secret and revealed only to members of the fraternity.^[84]

Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) designated using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each organization is its A chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B chapter, a Γ chapter, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω chapter is AA chapter, followed by AB chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "chapter Letter", albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.^[85]

ISO/IEC 8859-7

For the range A0–FF (hex), it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings, it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

Greek in Unicode

Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: ᾱ́Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text.^[86]

There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly, most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).

To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).