Tongan language
 |
| Tongan | |
|---|---|
| lea faka-TongaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | |
| Native to | Tonga; significant immigrant community in New Zealand and the United States |
| Ethnicity | Tongans |
Native speakers | (187,000
|
| Latin-based | |
| Official status | |
Official language in | Tonga |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | to |
| ISO 639-2 | ton |
| ISO 639-3 | ton |
| Glottolog | tong1325 |
Tongan (English pronunciation: /ˈtɒŋ(ɡ)ən/ TONG-(g)ən;[3][4][5][a] lea fakatongaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text) is an Austronesian language of the Polynesian branch native to the island nation of Tonga. It has around 187,000 speakers.[6] It uses the word order verb–subject–object and uses Latin script.
Related languages
Tongan is one of the multiple languages in the Polynesian branch of the Austronesian languages, along with Hawaiian, Māori, Samoan and Tahitian, for example. Together with Niuean, it forms the Tongic subgroup of Polynesian.
Tongan is unusual among Polynesian languages in that it has a so-called definitive accent. As with all Polynesian languages, Tongan has adapted the phonological system of proto-Polynesian.
- Tongan has retained the original proto-Polynesian *h, but has merged it with the original *s as /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA. (The /s/Category:Pages with plain IPA found in modern Tongan derives from *t before high front vowels). Most Polynesian languages have lost the original proto-Polynesian glottal stop /ʔ/Category:Pages with plain IPA; however, it has been retained in Tongan and a few other languages including Rapa Nui.[b]
- In proto-Polynesian, *r and *l were distinct phonemes, but in most Polynesian languages they have merged, represented orthographically as ⟨r⟩ in most East Polynesian languages, and as ⟨l⟩ in most West Polynesian languages. However, the distinction can be reconstructed because Tongan kept the *l but lost the *r.[c]
Tongan has heavily influenced the Wallisian language after Tongans colonized the island of ʻUvea in the 15th and 16th centuries.[7]
Writing
History
The earliest attempts to transcribe the Tongan language were made by Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire of the Dutch East India Company when they first arrived in 1616. They transcribed a limited number of nouns and verbs using phonetic Dutch spelling and added them to a growing list of Polynesian vocabulary. Abel Tasman, also of the Dutch East India Company, attempted to converse with indigenous Tongans using vocabulary from this list when he arrived on Tongatapu on 20 January 1643, although he was poorly understood, likely using words added from different Polynesian languages.[8]
Alphabet
Tongan is presently written in a subset of the Latin script. In the old, "missionary" alphabet, the order of the letters was modified: the vowels were put first and then followed by the consonants: a, e, i, o, u, with variation of letter ā. That was still so as of the Privy Council decision of 1943 on the orthography of the Tongan language. However, C. M. Churchward's grammar and dictionary favoured the standard European alphabetical order, which, since his time, has been in use exclusively:
| Letter | a, ā | e | f | h | i | k | l | m | n | ng | o | p | s | t | u | v | ʻ (fakauʻa) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pronunciation | /a/ | /e/ | /f/ | /h/ | /i/ | /k/ | /l/ | /m/ | /n/ | /ŋ/1 | /o/ | /p/2 | /s/3 | /t/ | /u/ | /v/ | /ʔ/4 |
Notes:
- written as g but still pronounced as [ŋ]Category:Pages with plain IPA (as in Samoan) before 1943
- unaspirated; written as b before 1943
- sometimes written as j before 1943 (see below)
- the glottal stop. It should be written with the modifier letter turned comma (Unicode 0x02BB) and not with the single quote open or with a mixture of quotes open and quotes close. See also ʻokina.
The above order is strictly followed in proper dictionaries. Therefore, ngatu follows nusi, ʻa follows vunga and it also follows z if foreign words occur. Words with long vowels come directly after those with short vowels. Improper wordlists may or may not follow these rules. (For example, the Tonga telephone directory for years now ignores all rules.Category:All articles with unsourced statementsCategory:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014[citation needed])
The original j, used for /tʃ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, disappeared in the beginning of the 20th century, merging with /s/Category:Pages with plain IPA. By 1943, j was no longer used. Consequently, many words written with s in Tongan are cognate to those with t in other Polynesian languages. For example, Masisi (a star name) in Tongan is cognate with Matiti in Tokelauan; siale (Gardenia taitensis) in Tongan and tiare in Tahitian. This seems to be a natural development, as /tʃ/Category:Pages with plain IPA in many Polynesian languages derived from Proto-Polynesian /ti/Category:Pages with plain IPA.
Phonology
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | p | t | k | ʔ | |
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | h | |
| voiced | v | ||||
| Lateral | l | ||||
/l/ may also be heard as an alveolar flap sound [ɺ].
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Syllabification
- Each syllable has exactly one vowel. The number of syllables in a word is exactly equal to the number of vowels it has.
- Long vowels, indicated with a toloi (macron), count as one, but may in some circumstances be split up in two short ones, in which case, they are both written. Toloi are supposed to be written where needed, in practice this may be seldom done.
- Each syllable may have no more than one consonant.
- Consonant combinations are not permitted. The ng is not a consonant combination, since it represents a single sound. As such it can never be split, the proper hyphenation of fakatongaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (Tongan) therefore is fa-ka-to-nga.
- Each syllable must end in a vowel. All vowels are pronounced, but an i at the end of an utterance is usually unvoiced.
- The fakauʻa is a consonant. It must be followed (and, except at the beginning of a word, preceded) by a vowel. Unlike the glottal stops in many other Polynesian languages texts, the fakauʻa is always written. (Only sometimes before 1943.)
- Stress normally falls on the next-to-last syllable of a word with two or more syllables; example: móheCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (sleep), mohéngaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (bed). If, however, the last vowel is long, it takes the stress; example: kumāCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (mouse) (stress on the long ā). The stress also shifts to the last vowel if the next word is an enclitic; example: fáleCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (house), falé niCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (this house). Finally the stress can shift to the last syllable, including an enclitic, in case of the definitive accent; example: mohengáCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text ((that) particular bed), fale níCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (this particular house). It is also here that a long vowel can be split into two short ones; example: pō (night), poó ni (this night), pō ní (this particular night). Or the opposite: maámaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (light), māmá niCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (this light), maama níCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (this particular light). There are some exceptions to the above general rules. The stress accent is normally not written, except where it is to indicate the definitive accent or fakamamafa. But here, too, people often neglect to write it, only using it when the proper stress cannot be easily derived from the context.
Although the acute accent has been available on most personal computers from their early days onwards, when Tongan newspapers started to use computers around 1990 to produce their papers, they were unable to find, or failed to enter, the proper keystrokes, and it grew into a habit to put the accent after the vowel instead of on it: not áCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text but a´Category:Articles containing Tongan-language text.Category:All articles with unsourced statementsCategory:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2020[citation needed] But as this distance seemed to be too big, a demand arose for Tongan fonts where the acute accent was shifted to the right, a position halfway in between the two extremes above. Most papers still follow this practice.
Grammar
Articles
English uses only two articles:
- indefinite a
- definite the
By contrast, Tongan has three articles, and possessives also have a three-level definiteness distinction:
- indefinite, nonspecific: ha. Example: ko ha fale ('a house', 'any house' - the speaker has no specific house in mind, any house will satisfy this description, e.g. 'I want to buy a house')
- indefinite, specific: (h)e. Example: ko e fale ('a (particular) house' - the speaker has a specific house in mind, but the listener is not expected to know which house, e.g. 'I bought a house')
- definite, specific: (h)e with the shifted ultimate stress. Example: ko e falé ('the house', - the speaker has a specific house in mind and the listener is expected to know which one from context, e.g. 'I bought the house I told you about').
Registers
There are three registers which consist of
- ordinary words (the normal language)
- honorific words (the language for the chiefs)
- regal words (the language for the king)
There are also further distinctions between
- polite words (used for more formal contexts)
- derogatory words (used for informal contexts, or to indicate humility)
For example, the phrase "Come and eat!" translates to:
- ordinary: haʻu ʻo kai (come and eat!); Friends, family members and so forth may say this to each other when invited for dinner.
- honorific: meʻa mai pea ʻilo (come and eat!); The proper used towards chiefs, particularly the nobles, but it may also be used by an employee towards his boss, or in other similar situations. When talking about chiefs, however, it is always used, even if they are not actually present, but in other situations only on formal occasions. A complication to the beginning student of Tongan is that such words very often also have an alternative meaning in the ordinary register: meʻa (thing) and ʻilo (know, find).
- regal: hāʻele mai pea taumafa (come and eat!); Used towards the king or God. The same considerations as for the honorific register apply. Hāʻele is one of the regal words which have become the normal word in other Polynesian languages.
Pronouns
The Tongan language distinguishes three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. They appear as the three major columns in the tables below.
The Tongan language distinguishes four persons: First person exclusive, first person inclusive, second person and third person. They appear as the four major rows in the tables below. This gives us 12 main groups.
Subjective and objective
In addition, possessive pronouns are either alienable (reddish) or inalienable (greenish), which Churchward termed subjective and objective. This marks a distinction that has been referred to, in some analyses of other Polynesian languages, as a-possession versus o-possession, respectively,[f] though more Tongan-appropriate version would be ʻe-possession and ho-possession.
Subjective and objective are fitting labels when dealing with verbs: ʻeku taki "my leading" vs. hoku taki "my being led". However, this is less apt when used on nouns. Indeed, in most contexts hoku taki would be interpreted as "my leader", as a noun rather than a verb. What then of nouns that have no real verb interpretation, such as fale "house"?
Churchward himself laid out the distinction thus:[9]
But what about those innumerable cases in which the possessive can hardly be said to correspond either to the subject or to the object of a verb? What, for example, is the rule or the guiding principle, which lies behind the fact that a Tongan says ʻeku paʻanga for ' my money' but hoku fale for 'my house'? It may be stated as follows: the use of ʻeku for 'my' implies that I am active, influential, or formative, &c., towards the thing mentioned, whereas the use of hoku for 'my' implies that the thing mentioned is active, influential, or formative, &c., towards me. Or, provided that we give a sufficiently wide meaning to the word 'impress', we may say, perhaps, that ʻeku is used in reference to things upon which I impress myself, while hoku is used in reference to things which impress themselves upon me.
ʻE possessives are generally used for:
- Goods, money, tools, utensils, instruments, weapons, vehicles, and other possessions which the subject owns or uses (ʻeku paʻanga, "my money")
- Animals or birds which the subjects owns or uses (ʻeku fanga puaka, "my pigs")
- Things which the subject eats, drinks, or smokes (ʻeku meʻakai, "my food")
- Things which the subject originates, makes, mends, carries, or otherwise deals with (ʻeku kavenga, "my burden")
- Persons in the subject's employ, under their control, or in their care (ʻeku tamaioʻeiki "my male servant")
Ho possessives are generally used for
- Things which are a part of the subject or 'unalienable' from the subject, such as body parts (hoku sino, "my body")
- Persons or things which represent the subject (hoku hingoa, "my name")
- The subject's relatives, friends, associates, or enemies (hoku hoa, "my companion (spouse)")
- Things which are provided for the subject or devolve to them or fall to their lot (hoku tofiʻa, "my inheritance")
- In general, persons or things which surround, support, or control the subject, or on which the subject depends (hoku kolo, "my village/town")
There are plenty of exceptions which do not fall under the guidelines above, for instance, ʻeku tamai, "my father". The number of exceptions is large enough to make the alienable and inalienable distinction appear on the surface to be as arbitrary as the grammatical gender distinction for Romance languages, but by and large the above guidelines hold true.
Cardinal pronouns
The cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronouns which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb, light colour) or postposed (after the verb, dark colour). The first are the normal alienable possessive pronouns, the latter the stressed alienable pronouns, which are sometimes used as reflexive pronouns, or with kia te in front the inalienable possessive forms. (There is no possession involved in the cardinal pronouns and therefore no alienable or inalienable forms).
| Position | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive (I, we, us) |
preposed | u, ou, ku | ma | mau |
| postposed | au | kimaua | kimautolu | ||
| inclusive (one, we, us) |
preposed | te | ta | tau | |
| postposed | kita | kitaua | kitautolu | ||
| 2nd person | preposed | ke | mo | mou | |
| postposed | koe | kimoua | kimoutolu | ||
| 3rd person | preposed | ne | na | nau | |
| postposed | ia | kinaua | kinautolu | ||
- all the preposed pronouns of one syllable only (ku, u, ma, te, ta, ke, mo, ne, na) are enclitics which never can take the stress, but put it on the vowel in front of them. Example: ʻoku naú versus ʻokú na (not: ʻoku ná).
- first person singular, I uses u after kuo, te, ne, and also ka (becomes kau), pea, mo and ʻo; but uses ou after ʻoku; and uses ku after naʻa.
- first person inclusive (I and you) is somewhat of a misnomer, at least in the singular. The meanings of te and kita can often rendered as one, that is the modesty I.
Examples of use.
- Naʻa ku fehuʻi: I asked
- Naʻe fehuʻi (ʻe) au: I(!) asked (stressed)
- ʻOku ou fehuʻi au: I ask myself
- Te u fehuʻi kiate koe: I shall ask you
- Te ke tali kiate au: You will answer me
- Kapau te te fehuʻi: If one would ask
- Tau ō ki he hulohula?: Are we (all) going to the ball?
- Sinitalela, mau ō ki he hulohula: Cinderella, we go to the ball (... said the evil stepmother, and she went with two of her daughters, but not Cinderella)
Another archaic aspect of Tongan is the retention of preposed pronouns.Category:All articles with unsourced statementsCategory:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2007[citation needed] They are used much less frequently in Samoan and have completely disappeared in East Polynesian languages, where the pronouns are cognate with the Tongan postposed form minus ki-. (We love you: ʻOku ʻofa kimautolu kia te kimoutolu; Māori: e aroha nei mātou i a koutou).
Possessive pronouns
The possessives for every person and number (1st person plural, 3rd person dual, etc.) can be further divided into normal or ordinary (light colour), emotional (medium colour) and emphatic (bright colour) forms. The latter is rarely used, but the two former are common and further subdivided in definite (saturated colour) and indefinite (greyish colour) forms.
| definite or not |
type | singular | dual | plural | ||||
| alienable2,5 | inalienable2,5 | alienable2,5 | inalienable2,5 | alienable2,5 | inalienable2,5 | |||
| 1st person (exclusive) (my, our) |
definite | ordinary | heʻeku1 | hoku | heʻema1 | homa | heʻemau1 | homau |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indefinite | haʻaku | haku | haʻama | hama | haʻamau | hamau | ||
| definite | emotional | siʻeku | siʻoku | siʻema | siʻoma | siʻemau | siʻomau | |
| indefinite | siʻaku | siʻaku | siʻama | siʻama | siʻamau | siʻamau | ||
| emphatic3 | haʻaku | hoʻoku | haʻamaua | hoʻomaua | haʻamautolu | hoʻomautolu | ||
| 1st person (inclusive)4 (my, our) |
definite | ordinary | heʻete1 | hoto | heʻeta1 | hota | heʻetau1 | hotau |
| indefinite | haʻate | hato | haʻata | hata | haʻatau | hatau | ||
| definite | emotional | siʻete | siʻoto | siʻeta | siʻota | siʻetau | siʻotau | |
| indefinite | siʻate | siʻato | siʻata | siʻata | siʻatau | siʻatau | ||
| emphatic3 | haʻata | hoʻota | haʻataua | hoʻotaua | haʻatautolu | hoʻotautolu | ||
| 2nd person (your) |
definite | ordinary | hoʻo | ho | hoʻomo | homo | hoʻomou | homou |
| indefinite | haʻo | hao | haʻamo | hamo | haʻamou | hamou | ||
| definite | emotional | siʻo | siʻo | siʻomo | siʻomo | siʻomou | siʻomou | |
| indefinite | siʻao | siʻao | siʻamo | siʻamo | siʻamou | siʻamou | ||
| emphatic3 | haʻau | hoʻou | haʻamoua | hoʻomoua | haʻamoutolu | hoʻomoutolu | ||
| 3rd person (his, her, its, their) |
definite | ordinary | heʻene1 | hono | heʻena1 | hona | heʻenau1 | honau |
| indefinite | haʻane | hano | haʻana | hana | haʻanau | hanau | ||
| definite | emotional | siʻene | siʻono | siʻena | siʻona | siʻenau | siʻonau | |
| indefinite | siʻane | siʻano | siʻana | siʻana | siʻanau | siʻanau | ||
| emphatic3 | haʻana | hoʻona | haʻanaua | hoʻonaua | haʻanautolu | hoʻonautolu | ||
Notes:
- the ordinary definite possessives starting with he (in italics) drop this prefix after any word except ʻi, ki, mei, ʻe. Example: ko ʻeku tohi, my book; ʻi heʻeku tohi, in my book.
- all ordinary alienable possessive forms contain a fakauʻa, the inalienable forms do not.
- the emphatic forms are not often used, but if they are, they take the definitive accent from the following words (see below)
- first person inclusive (me and you) is somewhat of a misnomer. The meanings of heʻete, hoto, etc. can often rendered as one's, that is the modesty me.
- the choice between an alienable or inalienable possessive is determined by the word or phrase it refers to. For example: ko ho fale '(it is) your house' (inalienable), ko ho'o tohi, '(it is) your book' (alienable). *Ko ho tohi, ko hoʻo fale* are wrong. Some words can take either, but with a difference in meaning: ko ʻene taki 'his/her leadership'; ko hono taki 'his/her leader'.
Examples of use.
- ko haʻaku/haku kahoa: my garland (any garland from or for me)
- ko ʻeku/hoku kahoa: my garland (it is my garland)
- ko ʻeku/hoku kahoá: my garland, that particular one and no other
- ko heʻete/hoto kahoa: one's garland {mine in fact, but that is not important}
- ko siʻaku kahoa: my cherished garland (any cherished garland from or for me)
- ko siʻeku/siʻoku kahoa: my cherished garland (it is my cherished garland)
- ko haʻakú/hoʻokú kahoa: garland (emphatically mine) – that particular garland is mine and not someone else's
- ko homa kahoa: our garlands (exclusive: you and I are wearing them, but not the person we are talking to)
- ko hota kahoa: our garlands (inclusive: you and I are wearing them, and I am talking to you)
Other pronouns
These are the remainders: the pronominal adjectives (mine), indirect object pronouns or pronominal adverbs (for me) and the adverbial possessives (as me).
| type | singular1 | dual | plural | ||||
| alienable | inalienable | alienable | inalienable | alienable | inalienable | ||
| 1st person (exclusive) (my, our) |
pronominal adjective | ʻaʻaku | ʻoʻoku | ʻamaua | ʻomaua | ʻamautolu | ʻomautolu |
| pronominal adverb | maʻaku | moʻoku | maʻamaua | moʻomaua | maʻamautolu | moʻomautolu | |
| adverbial possessive | maʻaku | moʻoku | maʻama | moʻoma | maʻamau | moʻomau | |
| 1st person (inclusive) (my, our) |
pronominal adjective | ʻaʻata | ʻoʻota | ʻataua | ʻotaua | ʻatautolu | ʻotautolu |
| pronominal adverb | maʻata | moʻota | maʻataua | moʻotaua | maʻatautolu | moʻotautolu | |
| adverbial possessive | maʻate | moʻoto | maʻata | moʻota | maʻatau | moʻotau | |
| 2nd person (your) |
pronominal adjective | ʻaʻau | ʻoʻou | ʻamoua | ʻomoua | ʻamoutolu | ʻomoutolu |
| pronominal adverb | maʻau | moʻou | maʻamoua | moʻomoua | maʻamoutolu | moʻomoutolu | |
| adverbial possessive | maʻo | moʻo | maʻamo | moʻomo | maʻamou | moʻomou | |
| 3rd person (his, her, its, their) |
pronominal adjective | ʻaʻana | ʻoʻona | ʻanaua | ʻonaua | ʻanautolu | ʻonautolu |
| pronominal adverb | maʻana | moʻona | maʻanaua | moʻonaua | maʻanautolu | moʻonautolu | |
| adverbial possessive | maʻane | moʻono | maʻana | moʻona | maʻanau | moʻonau | |
Notes:
- the first syllable in all singular pronominal adjectives (in italics) is reduplicated and can be dropped for somewhat less emphasis
- the pronominal adjectives put a stronger emphasis on the possessor than the possessive pronouns do
- the use of the adverbial possessives is rare
Examples of use:
- ko hono valá: it is his/her/its clothing/dress
- ko e vala ʻona: it is his/her/its (!) clothing/dress
- ko e vala ʻoʻona: it is his/her/its (!!!) clothing/dress
- ko hono valá ʻona: it is his/her/its own clothing/dress
- ko hono vala ʻoná: it is his/her/its own clothing/dress; same as previous
- ko hono vala ʻoʻoná: it is his/her/its very own clothing/dress
- ʻoku ʻoʻona ʻa e valá ni: this clothing is his/hers/its
- ʻoku moʻona ʻa e valá: the clothing is for him/her/it
- ʻoange ia moʻono valá: give it (to him/her/it) as his/hers/its clothing
Numerals
| 0 | noa | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | taha | 2 | ua | 3 | tolu |
| 4 | fā | 5 | nima | 6 | ono |
| 7 | fitu | 8 | valu | 9 | hiva |
In Tongan, "telephone-style" numerals can be used: reading numbers by simply saying their digits one by one.[10][11] For 'simple' two-digit multiples of ten both the 'full-style' and 'telephone-style' numbers are in equally common use, while for other two-digit numbers the 'telephone-style' numbers are almost exclusively in use:
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ʻOku fiha ia? (how much (does it cost)?) Paʻanga ʻe ua-nima-noa (T$2.50)
In addition there are special, traditional counting systems for fish, coconuts, yams, etc.[12] (Cf. Classifier (linguistics).)
Literature
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2010) |
Tongan has a very rich oral literature and is primarily a spoken, rather than written, language.
One of the first publications of Tongan texts was in William Mariner's grammar and dictionary of the Tongan language, edited and published in 1817 by John Martin as part of volume 2 of Mariner's Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean.[13] Orthography has changed since Mariner's time.
An annotated list of dictionaries and vocabularies of the Tongan language is available at the website of the Bibliographical Society of America under the resource heading 'Breon Mitchell": .
The Bible and the Book of Mormon were translated into Tongan and few other books were written in it.[14]
There are several weekly and monthly magazines in Tongan, but there are no daily newspapers.
Weekly newspapers, some of them twice per week:
- Ko e Kalonikali ʻo Tonga
- Ko e Keleʻa
- Taimi ʻo Tonga
- Talaki
- Ko e Tauʻatāina
- Tonga Maʻa Tonga
Monthly or two-monthly papers, mostly church publications:
- Taumuʻa lelei (Catholic Church)
- Tohi fanongonongo (Free Wesleyan)
- Liahona (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)[15]
- ʻOfa ki Tonga (Tokaikolo)
Calendar
The Tongan calendar was based on the phases of the moon and had 13 months. The main purpose of the calendar, for Tongans, was to determine the time for the planting and cultivation of yams (ufi), which were Tonga's most important staple food.
| Traditional Month | Gregorian Calendar | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| LihamuʻaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-November to early December | Warm weather, trees flower |
| LihamuiCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-December to early January | Trees bear fruit |
| VaimuʻaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-January to early February | Start of rainy season |
| VaimuiCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-February to early March | |
| Fakaafu MoʻuiCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-March to early April | Start of cyclone season (fakaʻafu lit. 'sweltering'), new ufi tubers develop |
| Fakaaafu MateCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-April to early May | End (mate) of cyclone season |
| HilingakelekeleCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-May to early June | ufi harvest (lit. 'uncovering from dirt') |
| HilingameaʻaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-June to early July | End (meaʻa lit. 'clean') of ufi harvest |
| ʻAoʻaoCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text, ʻAoʻaokimasisivaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-July to early August | |
| FuʻufuʻunekinangaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-August to early September | |
| ʻUluengaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | mid-September to early October | ufi tubers develop and withers leaves (lit. 'yellow head') |
| TanumangaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | early October to late October | "burying" of new shoots from ufi tubers |
| ʻOʻoamofanongoCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text | late October to early November | Limited water and food stock |
|
|
Notes
- ↑ Both pronunciations are used in English, although the one without /ɡ/Category:Pages with plain IPA is preferred as it is closer to the Tongan pronunciation. In North America and the United Kingdom, both pronunciations are used, while the preferred pronunciation (i.e the one without /ɡ/Category:Pages with plain IPA) is almost always used in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands.
- ↑ The glottal stop in most other Polynesian languages are the reflexes of other consonants of proto-Polynesian; for example, the glottal stop of Samoan and Hawaiian is a reflex of the original *k; the glottal stop of Cook Islands Māori represents a merger of the original *f and *s. Tongan does not show changes such as the *t to /k/Category:Pages with plain IPA and *ŋCategory:Pages with plain IPA to /n/Category:Pages with plain IPA of Hawaiian; nor has Tongan shifted *f to /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA. Although Tongan, Samoan and other Western Polynesian languages are not affected by a change in Central Eastern Polynesian languages (such as New Zealand Māori) involving the dissimilation of /faf/Category:Pages with plain IPA to /wah/Category:Pages with plain IPA, Tongan has vowel changes (as seen in monumanuCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text from original manumanuCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text) which are not a feature of other languages.
- ↑ This loss may be quite recent. The word luaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text 'two' is still found in some placenames and archaic texts. MaramaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text 'light' thus became maamaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text, and the two successive a's are still pronounced separately, not yet contracted to *māmaCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text. On the other hand, toroCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text 'sugarcane' already has become tōCategory:Articles containing Tongan-language text (still toloCategory:Articles containing Samaritan Aramaic-language text in Samoan).
- ↑ Glottal stop is represented as 'q' in reconstructed Proto-Polynesian words.
- ↑ Archaic: the usual word in today's Tahitian is pitiCategory:Articles containing Tahitian-language text.
- ↑ These a and o refer to the characteristic vowel used in those pronouns. In Tongan, however, this distinction is much less clear, and rather a characteristic for the indefinite and definite forms respectively. Use of the a & o terms therefore is not favoured.
References
- ↑ Tongan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only contentCategory:Language articles citing Ethnologue 18
- ↑ Tongan language at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)
Category:Language articles citing Ethnologue 17 - ↑ "Tongan". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 10 February 2022. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ↑ "Tongan". Lexico. Archived from the original on March 26, 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
- ↑ "Tongan". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
- ↑ "Tongan". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
- ↑ Akihisa Tsukamoto (1994). LIT Verlag Münster (ed.). Forschungen über die Sprachen der Inseln zwischen Tonga und Saamoa (in German). LIT Verlag Münster. p. 109. ISBN 3825820157.Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)
- ↑ Thompson, Christina (5 March 2020). Sea People: In Search of the Ancient Navigators of the Pacific. Glasgow, Scotland: William Collins. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-0-00-833905-0.
- ↑ Churchward, C.M. (1999). Tongan Grammar. Vava'u Press Limited. p. 81. ISBN 982-213-007-4.
- ↑ Churchward, Clerk Maxwell (1953). Tongan grammar (Pbk. ed.). Tonga: Vava'u Press. p. 171. ISBN 0-908717-05-9. OCLC 21337535.
{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Category:CS1 errors: ISBN date - ↑ "UniLang • Tongan for Beginners". unilang.org. Retrieved 2020-04-08.
- ↑ Churchward, C.M. (1999). Tongan Grammar. Vava'u Press Limited. pp. 184–189. ISBN 982-213-007-4.
- ↑ "An account of the natives of the Tonga Islands, in the South Pacific Ocean. With an original grammar and vocabulary of their language". 1817.
- ↑ Sea hear
- ↑ Online Tongan edition of Liahona, churchofjesuschrist.org
- ↑ Cocker, James; Cocker, Meliame. "Koe Ta'u Faka-Tonga". freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com (in Tongan). Archived from the original on October 27, 2011.Category:CS1 Tongan-language sources (to)
- ↑ Savelio Pole, Finau. "Traditional Tongan Farming System: Past and Present" (PDF). IHCAP: 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-22. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
- ↑ Havea, Jione (2021). Theologies from the Pacific. Springer Nature. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-3-030-74365-9.
Bibliography
- Churchward, C. Maxwell (1999) [1953, London: Oxford University Press; 1985, Tonga: Vavaʼu Press]. Tongan Grammar. Tonga: Vavaʼu Press. ISBN 982-213-007-4.
- Churchward, C.Maxwell (1999) [1959, London: Oxford University Press]. Tongan Dictionary: Tongan-English and English-Tongan. Tonga: Vavaʼu Press.
- Feldman, Harry (1978). "Some Notes on Tongan Phonology". Oceanic Linguistics. 17 (2): 133–139. doi:10.2307/3622908. JSTOR 3622908.
- Garellek, Marc; Tabain, Marija (2020). "Tongan". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 50 (3): 406–416. doi:10.1017/S0025100318000397, with supplementary sound recordings.
- Tuʻinukuafe, Edgar (1993). A Simplified Dictionary of Modern Tongan. Polynesian Press. ISBN 978-0908597093.
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