Jeju language
Category:Use dmy dates from April 2022
| Jeju | |
|---|---|
| Jejueo, Jejuan | |
| 제줏말Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text / 제주말Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text Jejunmal / Jejumal | |
![](./File:Jeju-language_Greeting_"Welcome".png) | |
| Native to | South Korea |
| Region | Jeju Province |
| Ethnicity | Jejuans |
Native speakers | 5,000 (2014)[1] |
Koreanic
| |
Early forms | |
| Hangul | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | jje |
| Glottolog | jeju1234 |
| ELP | Jejueo |
 | |
Jeju (Jeju: 제줏말Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text; Jeju RR: Jejunmal, or Korean: 제주어Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; RR: JejueoCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text, or 제주말Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; JejumalCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text), often called Jejueo or Jejuan in English-language scholarship, is a Koreanic language originally from Jeju Island, South Korea.[2] It is not mutually intelligible with mainland Korean dialects. While it was historically considered a divergent Jeju dialect of the Korean language, it is increasingly referred to as a separate language in its own right. It is declining in usage and was classified by UNESCO in 2010 as critically endangered, the highest level of language endangerment possible. Revitalization efforts are ongoing.
The consonants of Jeju are similar to those of Seoul Korean, but Jeju has a larger and more conservative vowel inventory. Jeju is a head-final, agglutinative, suffixing language like Korean. Nouns are followed by particles that may function as case markers. Verbs inflect for tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, relative social status, formality, and other grammatical information. Korean and Jeju differ significantly in their verbal paradigms. For instance, the continuative aspect marker of Jeju and the mood or aspect distinction of many Jeju connective suffixes are absent in Korean. Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and the language preserves many Middle Korean features and words now lost in Standard Korean.[3][4] Jeju may also have a Peninsular Japonic substratum, but this argument has been disputed.[5]
Jeju was already divergent from the Seoul dialect of Korean by the fifteenth century and unintelligible to mainland Korean visitors by the sixteenth century. The language was severely undermined by the aftermath of the Jeju uprising of 1948, the Korean War, and the modernization of South Korea. Many fluent speakers remaining in Jeju Island are now over seventy years old. Most people in Jeju Island now speak a variety of Korean with a Jeju substratum. The language may be somewhat more vigorous in a diaspora community in Osaka, Japan, as many Jeju people migrated to Osaka in the 1920s, but even there, younger members of the community tend to speak Japanese.
Nomenclature and relationship to Korean
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Various terms in both Korean and English exist for the Jeju language, which also vary depending on whether it is considered a separate language or a dialect of Korean by the speaker.
Among native speakers, the term "Jeju speech" (제주말Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; JejumalCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text) is most commonly used.[7] In English-language scholarship, it is often called Jejueo or Jejuan.[8][9]
Language or dialect distinction
Jeju is closely related to Korean. It was traditionally considered an especially divergent dialect of Korean, and as of 2019[update]Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements is still referred to as such by the National Institute of Korean Language and the South Korean Ministry of Education.[10]
Until the 2000s, South Korean academia preferred the term "Jeju dialect" (제주방언Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; Jeju bangeonCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text). While the term "Jeju language" (제주어Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; JejueoCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text) was first used in 1947, it was not until the mid-1990s that the term gained traction. The majority of South Korean academic publications switched to using "Jeju language" by the early 2010s.[11] Since somewhat earlier, "Jeju language" has also been the term preferred in local law, such as the 2007 Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,[a] and by non-governmental organizations working to preserve the language.[12] The only English-language monograph on Jeju, published in 2019, consistently refers to it as a language as well.[13]
Mutual intelligibility with modern South Korean Korean
Jeju is not mutually intelligible with even the southernmost dialects of South Korea. In a 2014 survey measuring intelligibility, Korean speakers from three different dialect zones (Seoul, Busan, and Yeosu) were exposed to one minute of spoken Jeju, with a control group of native Jeju speakers. On average, South Korean native speakers from all three dialect zones answered less than 10% of the basic comprehension questions correctly, while native Jeju speakers answered over 89% of the questions correctly. These results are comparable to the results of an intelligibility test of Norwegian for native Dutch speakers.[14] Diaspora Jeju speakers living in Japan have also reported that they find it difficult to understand South Korean news media, and resort to Japanese subtitles when watching South Korean TV shows.[15]
Geographic distribution
Jeju was traditionally spoken throughout Jeju Province except in the Chuja Islands, halfway between Jeju Island and mainland Korea, where a variety of Southwestern Korean is found.[16] The language is also used by some of the first- and second-generation[b] members of the Zainichi Korean community in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan.[17]
Compared to mainland Korean dialect groups, there is little internal variation within Jeju. A distinction between a northern and southern dialect with a geographic divide at Hallasan is sometimes posited, but an eastern-western dialectal divide cutting through Jeju City and Seogwipo may better explain the few dialectal differences that do exist.[18][19] A 2010 survey of regional variation in 305 word sets suggests that the north–south divide and the east–west divide coexist, resulting in four distinct dialect groups.[20]
An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard".
Eastern Seogwipo uses 장쿨레비Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jangkullebi while western Seogwipo uses 독다구리Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text dokdaguri.[21]
A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab".
![An east–west divide is salient in the Jeju words for "lizard".Eastern Seogwipo uses 장쿨레비 jangkullebi while western Seogwipo uses 독다구리 dokdaguri.](./File:Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_"lizard".png)
![A north–south divide is more noticeable in the Jeju words for "crab".](./File:Dialectal_diversity_in_Jeju_"crab".png)
History
Pre-modern history
The Koreanic languages are likely not native to Jeju Island; it has been proposed that the family has its roots in Manchuria, a historical region in northeastern Asia. It is thought that Koreanic speakers migrated from southern Manchuria between the third and eighth centuries CE. Linguist Alexander Vovin suggests that the ancient kingdom of Tamna, which ruled the island until the twelfth century, may have spoken a Japonic language that left a substrate influence on Jeju. When exactly this putative Japonic language may have been replaced by the Koreanic ancestor of Jeju remains unclear.[22]
During the late thirteenth century, Jeju Island came under direct Yuan administration, which lead to significant migration of Mongol soldiers to the island. Acting as a superstratum, their language contributed to the change of the local language. Yang Changyong, a linguist, speculates that Mongol influence played a significant role in the formation of Jejueo as a distinct language independent[23] from standard Korean.[24]
By the fifteenth century, when the invention of Hangul greatly improved the understanding of Korean phonology, Seoul Korean and Jeju were already divergent; the Seoul prestige dialect of fifteenth-century Middle Korean disallowed the diphthong /jʌ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, which Jeju allows.[25] Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century references to the language of Jeju by mainland Korean literati state that it was already unintelligible to mainland Koreans.[26] Kim Sang-heon (1570—1652), who from 1601 to 1602 served as the island's pacification commissioner,[c] gives six words in the "provincial language" with clear cognates in modern Jeju and also writes:[27]
謫人 申長齡 乃譯官也 嘗曰 「比島語音 酷以中華 如驅牛馬之聲 尤不可分辯云云 盖風氣與華不隔而然耶 曾爲元朝所據置官於此故與華相雜而然耶」... 所謂俚語者 但高細不可曉Category:Articles containing Literary Chinese-language text
"The exiled man Shin Jangnyeong was originally a government interpreter. He said, 'The language of this island is most like Chinese, and the sounds they make while driving cattle and horses are yet more impossible to tell apart. Is this because the climate is not far from that of China, or because the Yuan dynasty once ruled and appointed officials here and the Chinese mingled with them?'... What is called the provincial language is but high and thin and cannot be understood."
In 1629, the Korean government banned the emigration of Jeju Islanders to the mainland, further restricting linguistic contacts between Jeju and Korean.[28] At the same time, the island was also used throughout the Joseon era (1392—1910) as a place of exile for disgraced scholar-officials. These highly educated speakers of Seoul Korean often tutored the children of their Jeju neighbors during their exile and established a continuous and significant Seoul Korean superstratum in Jeju.[27]
Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)
Under the Japanese colonial rule, Jejueo remained the dominating language in both public and private spheres on Jeju Island. However, with the entrance of Japanese loanwords to the lexicon, some speakers became monolingual Japanese speakers. Migration of Jeju Islanders to Japan began to skyrocket in 1911, with significant communities established, more so in cities like Osaka, becoming home to 38,000 Jeju Islanders by 1911. Despite gaining independence, citizens of Jeju and Korea still migrated to Japan, continuing to impact the linguistic landscape of Jeju Island as the younger generations within the diaspora communities only spoke Japanese, leading the decline in fluency in Jejueo.[29]
Modern period and decline (1945–present)
Severe disruption to the Jeju language community began after the end of Japanese rule and World War II in 1945. Korea was divided between an American-backed government in the South and a Soviet-backed government in the north,[30] which were succeeded by South Korea and North Korea correspondingly in 1948. Popular opposition to the division and many other issues led to a rebellion on Jeju island on 3 April 1948. The Syngman Rhee regime suppressed the rebellion with mass killings of civilians. As many as 60,000 Jeju Islanders, or a full fifth of the pre-rebellion population, were killed. 40,000 more fled to Japan. Out of the 400 villages of the island, only 170 remained.[31]
The devastating impact of the massacres on the Jeju language community was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. While Jeju was never occupied by the North Korean army, nearly 150,000 Korean-speaking refugees from the mainland fleeing North Korean invasion arrived in Jeju in the first year of the war.[32]
The above events shattered the Jeju language's former dominance on the island,[32] and Standard Korean began to displace Jeju in the public sphere by the 1950s.[33] The 1970s Saemaeul Undong, an ambitious rural modernization program launched by Park Chung Hee, disrupted the traditional village community where Jeju had thrived. The language came to be perceived as an incorrect dialect of Korean; students were even subject to corporal punishment if they used it in school.[34] Standard Korean became more commonplace in private settings even outside of Jeju City.[35] The language attitude of native Jeju speakers in this period was self-disparaging, and even Jeju people regarded the use of Jeju "with contempt".[34] A 1981 survey of language attitudes among high school and university students natively speaking Seoul Korean, Chungcheong Korean, Southwestern Korean, Southeastern Korean, and Jeju showed that Jeju speakers were the most likely among the five groups to ascribe negative traits to their native variety.[36]
A 1992 study of code-switching by native Jeju speakers shows that Jeju was by then in an unfavorable diglossic relationship with Korean, and was largely restricted to informal contexts even between Jeju natives.[37] Within a primarily Jeju conversation, Standard Korean was used to emphasize the rationality or truth value of statements. Switching to Jeju in a primarily Standard Korean conversation signified that the speaker was making a subjective statement or being less serious.[38]
| Participants | Formality | Intimacy | Social status | Preferred variety |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Includes mainlander | Standard Korean | |||
| Only Jeju natives | Formal | |||
| Informal | Participants are not emotionally intimate | Speaker is socially inferior to addressee | ||
| Speaker is socially superior to addressee | Jeju / Jeju Korean | |||
| Participants are emotionally intimate | ||||
The same study notes that by 1992, even this variety restricted to the informal domain was usually a Korean dialect with a Jeju substratum, rather than the traditional Jeju language:
현재 상용되는 제주말의 경우, 표준말과의 차이가 과거에 비해 크게 줄어들고 있는 상황으로써 특히 어미활용에서 표준말과의 차이가 극대화되며, 다른 부분에서는 상대적으로 표준말과의 차이가 극소화된다는 점이다. 따라서 제주사람들은 과거 사용되던 토박이 말에 가까운 것은 '진한 (심한) 제주말'로, 현재 사용되는 제주말은 '옅은 제주말' 또는 '(표준어와) 섞어진 말'로 표현하는 등, 제주말과 표준말이 일종의 방언 연속체를 형성하는 것으로 인식하고 있다.Category:Articles containing Korean-language text[40]
"As for the Jeju language [lit. 'Jeju speech'] in general use nowadays [as of 1992], the situation is that its differences from Standard Korean are greatly diminishing compared to the past. Its greatest differences with Standard Korean [now] lie especially in the suffix paradigm, and in other areas the differences are being minimized. The Jeju people accordingly understand that Jeju and Standard Korean are in a form of dialect continuum, and refer to the native language formerly in use as "thick (or intense) Jeju language" and the Jeju language currently in use as "light Jeju language" or "mixed (with Korean) language."
Current status and ongoing endangerment
Since 2010,[41] UNESCO has classified Jeju as a critically endangered language, defined as one whose "youngest speakers are grandparents and older... [who] speak the language partially and infrequently."[42] In 2018, the Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London collected audio and video recordings of native Jeju speakers having everyday conversations, singing traditional songs, and performing rituals.[9]
The official language of South Korea is Standard Korean. Nearly all residents of Jeju Island are bilingual in Standard Korean and Jeju, while many younger individuals are even more fluent in English than in Jeju. Standard Korean is most commonly used in the majority of public areas, while Jeju tends to be reserved for use at home and a few local markets.[43] All schools located on Jeju Island are required to teach Standard Korean and only offer Jeju as an elective course.[44] In addition, many Jeju Islander migrate to mainland Korea for a number of various reasons such as education, employment, and marriage contributing to decline of the Jejueo language.[45] As a result, there are currently no monolingual speakers of Jeju.Category:All articles with unsourced statementsCategory:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023[citation needed]
The distinctive phonological, syntactic, and lexical features of the Jeju Island language, known as Jejueo or Jeju dialect, compared to Standard Korean, pose obstacles to effective communication. Phonological differences, such as variations in pitch accent and vowel distinctions, may lead to misunderstandings or difficulties in comprehension between Jeju natives and speakers of Standard Korean. Communication can also be made more difficult by syntactic variances, word order flexibility, and particle usage inconsistencies between Standard Korean and Jejueo. In contrast to the mainstream linguistic rules observed in mainland Korean, Jejueo maintains earlier grammatical structures and syntactic patterns that may lead to misunderstandings or confusion during conversations.
As of 2018, fluent speakers in Jeju Island were all over seventy years of age, while passive competence was found in some people in their forties and fifties. Younger Islanders speak Korean with Jeju substrate influence[34] found in residual elements of the Jeju verbal paradigm and in select vocabulary such as kinship terms.[46] The language is more vigorous in Osaka, where there may be fluent speakers born as late as the 1960s.[47]
A 2008 survey of adult residents' knowledge of ninety Jeju cultural words showed that only twenty-one were understood by the majority of those surveyed.[48] Lack of heritage knowledge of Jeju is even more severe among younger people. In 2010, 400 Jeju teenagers were surveyed for their knowledge of 120 basic Jeju vocabulary items, but only 19 words were recognized by the majority while 45 words were understood by less than 10%.[49] A 2018 study suggests that even the verbal paradigm, among the more resilient parts of the substratum, may be in danger; the average middle schooler was more competent in the verb system of English, a language "taught only a few hours a week in school and in private tutoring institutions", than of Jeju.[50]
Local attitudes towards Jeju
Historically, the Jeju language was seen as impolite or uncultured. Jeju uses fewer honorifics and has four levels of politeness, in comparison to the seven levels in Standard Korean.[43] Because of the linguistic differences and cultural differences, Jeju Islanders were marginalized and excluded among mainland Koreans.[51] In a 2011 Korea Times article, a student said they believed the language was not respectful enough to use with professors, and that the Seoul dialect was more sophisticated. In addition, Jeju is often associated with the countryside, as the majority of speakers tend to have traditional occupations, including farming, fishing, and diving. As a result, many younger children express a disinterest in learning the language.[52]
Improving sentiment
However, recent surveys show improved sentiment towards the Jeju language. In a National Institute of the Korean Language survey in 2005, only 9.4% of Jeju Islanders were very proud of the regional variety. When the same survey was readministered in 2015, 36.8% were very proud of the language,[53] and Jeju Islanders had become the most likely among South Korean dialect groups to have "very positive" opinions of the regional variety.[54] In a 2017 study of 240 Jeju Islanders, 82.8% of those sampled considered Jeju to be "nice to listen to",[55] and 74.9% hoped that their children would learn the language.[56] But significant generational differences in attitudes were also observed. For instance, only 13.8% of Jeju Islanders between 20 and 40 much preferred Jeju over Standard Korean, while 49.1% of those above 80 did.[57]
In a 2013 survey of Jeju natives, 77.9% agreed with the statement that "[the Jeju language] has to be passed down as part of Jeju culture."[58] But a 2015 study of approximately 1,000 Jeju Islanders suggests that even though most Jeju Islanders believe the language to be an important part of the island's culture, the vast majority are skeptical of the language's long-term viability, and more people are unwilling than willing to actively participate in language preservation efforts.[59]
Revitalization efforts
![](./File:Jeju_Language_Preservation_Society_Textbook_"Hawndi_baeu-neun_Jeju-eo".jpg)
Revitalization efforts have been ongoing.
Government efforts
On 27 September 2007, the Jeju provincial government promulgated the Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language,[61] which established five-year plans for state-backed language preservation. The Act encouraged public schools on Jeju Island to offer Jeju as an extracurricular activity, as well as to incorporate the language as a part of regular classes if relevant and feasible.[44] In addition, multiple programs were provided for adults. For example, adult language programs are offered every year at the Jeju National University and are free of charge. There are also several local centres on Jeju Island that offer classes in Jeju Language specifically to marriage-based immigrants.[44]
However, it was not until UNESCO's 2010 designation of Jeju as critically endangered that the provincial government became proactive in Jeju preservation efforts.[62] In 2016, the provincial government allotted ₩685,000,000 (US$565,592 in 2016) to revitalization programs,[63] and the government-funded Jeju Research Institute has compiled phrasebooks of the language.[64]Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2023[clarification needed] The provincial Ministry of Education has also published Jeju textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, although some textbooks really teach Standard Korean interspersed with Jeju lexical items. Some public schools offer after-school programs for Jeju, but the short duration of these classes may be insufficient to promote more than "symbolic" use by students.[65] The linguistic competence of many teachers has also been challenged.[66]
On 12 August 2011, the Research Centre for Jeju Studies was opened with the purpose of implementing projects for the revitalization and safeguarding of Jeju Language.[67] The project encouraged the promotion of Jeju Language in schools by tasking the Education Bureau with several initiatives, including a training program for teachers. The project also started a radio broadcast in Jeju Language, as well as a radio campaign for Jeju slang and an annual Jeju Language festival.[67] An iPhone application was developed, including a glossary, as well as a collection of proverbs, poems, and quizzes in Jeju Language. Finally, an introductory conversation brochure was distributed to both citizens and visitors of Jeju Island.[67]
Popular media efforts
The Jeju Language Preservation Society,[d] founded in December 2008, publishes a bimonthly Jeju-language magazine Deongdeureong-makke (덩드렁마께Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text) and holds Jeju teaching programs and speaking contests.[68] Children's books and a 2014 poetry anthology have also been published. Local bands and theater troupes have made Jeju-language performances.[69] Regional newspapers such as the Jemin Ilbo and the Halla Ilbo include Jeju-language sections.
Local branches of KBS and MBC have launched Jeju radio programs and a television series.[70] Recent South Korean media with nationwide appeal, including the 2010 television series Life is Beautiful and The Great Merchant, the 2012 drama film Jiseul, and the 2015 television series Warm and Cozy, have also featured spoken Jeju.[69]
Cultural differences
In addition to the difference in language and dialect, Jeju Islanders and mainland Koreans share a number of cultural differences.
The historical isolation and unique identity of Jeju Island, which have nourished a strong sense of regional pride and unity among Jeju inhabitants, are two significant cultural differences. Jeju Island's distinct cultural traditions, folk beliefs, and practices set it apart from the Korean mainland are a result of the island's geographic isolation. For example, Jeju's traditional women divers, or haenyeo, represent the ideals of resiliency, collaboration, and environmental care and represent the island's matriarchal legacy and collective spirit.
Moreover, Jeju Island's tumultuous history, including the Jeju rebellion and subsequent mass killings, has left a profound impact on the collective memory and social identity of Jeju Islanders. The trauma and scars of historical events continue to resonate in the cultural consciousness, shaping perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among Jeju natives. These experiences have contributed to a distinct sense of identity and solidarity among Jeju Islanders, often manifesting in cultural expressions, artistic forms, and community rituals that reflect resilience and resistance against oppression.
Religious practices on Jeju Island encompass a diverse range of beliefs, including shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, each contributing to the island's rich religious heritage and spiritual landscape. These religious traditions intersect with cultural rituals and festivals, such as the annual Jeju Fire Festival and Seongsan Sunrise Festival, which celebrate Jeju's natural beauty, cultural heritage, and community solidarity.[71]
Orthography
Jeju has historically had no written language.[72] Two recently devised standard orthographies are currently in use: a system created in 1991 by scholars of the Jeju Dialect Research Society,[e] and a system promulgated by the provincial government in 2014.[73] Both systems use the Korean alphabet Hangul with one additional letter ㆍCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text, which was used in the Middle and Early Modern Korean scripts but is now defunct in written Korean. Similar to the modern Korean script, Jeju orthographies have morphophonemic tendencies, meaning that transcribing the underlying morphology generally takes precedence over the surface form.[72] The two orthographies differ largely because they are based on different morphological analyses of the language, especially of the verbal paradigm, as seen in the example below.[74]
| Orthography | Underlying morphemes | Jeju word | Necessary analysis | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Research Society orthography | 나끄- nakkeu- "to fish" |
-민 -min COND |
나껌시민 nakkeomsimin "if [he] is fishing" |
Stem-final vowel -eu is lost before vowel-initial suffix | |
| Government orthography | 낚- nakk- "to fish" |
-민 -min COND |
낚어ᇝ이민 nakkeomsimin "if [he] is fishing" |
Conditional suffix -min requires epenthetical vowel -i- after consonant | |
This article will use the government's orthography where the two differ.
Transliteration or romanization
The transliteration scheme generally used in Korean linguistics, including when transcribing Jeju, is the Yale Romanization system. Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 instead use a variant of the Revised Romanization system with the addition of the sequence aw for ㆍCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA.[75]
This article also uses Revised Romanization with the addition of aw, but without Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's one-to-one correspondence between Hangul glyphs and the Latin alphabet.
Phonology
Consonants
The non-approximant consonants of Jeju correspond to the nineteen non-approximant consonants of Standard Korean, and Jeju displays the three-way contrast between stops and affricates characteristic of Modern Korean. Whether the voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, absent in Standard Korean, exists as a phoneme in Jeju or merely as an allophone of /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA remains disputed.[76] A 2000 acoustic and aerodynamic study of eight native Jeju speakers concludes that "the consonants of the two languages seem to be the same in every respect... the phonetic realization of all [Jeju] consonants are the same as those found in [Seoul] Korean."[77]
Consonantal phonological processes
Jeju allophony involves a number of phonological processes also found in Seoul Korean. As in Korean, /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA surfaces as [ɾ]Category:Pages with plain IPA intervocally. Also as in Korean, lax stops and affricates have fully voiced allophones in medial position, all obstruents have unreleased allophones in final position, and syllable-final sibilants surface as [t̚]Category:Pages with plain IPA.[78] Whether non-lax stops and affricates[g] can appear in final position is controversial. The morphological analysis necessary for the government's orthography permits them, while the analysis behind the Jeju Language Research Society's orthography forbids them.[79][80]
Most non-morphophonological consonant assimilation rules of Standard Korean are also found in Jeju. /s/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /s͈/Category:Pages with plain IPA are regularly palatalized to [ʃ]Category:Pages with plain IPA before /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA or /j/Category:Pages with plain IPA. Lax obstruents are tensed following another obstruent. /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA aspirates both the preceding and the subsequent lax obstruent. A nasal consonant nasalizes a preceding obstruent[81] or /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA. /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA becomes [n]Category:Pages with plain IPA following all consonants except itself or /n/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and this [n]Category:Pages with plain IPA can itself nasalize the preceding obstruent so that the underlying sequence /pl/Category:Pages with plain IPA is realized as [mn]Category:Pages with plain IPA. On the other hand, underlying /ln/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /nl/Category:Pages with plain IPA both produce [ll]Category:Pages with plain IPA.[82]
Jeju also has consonant allophones that appear only at morpheme boundaries. Some of these are found in Standard Korean, such as the insertion of [n]Category:Pages with plain IPA before i-Category:Pages with plain IPA or j-Category:Pages with plain IPA at most word-internal morpheme boundaries; the palatalization of /t/Category:Pages with plain IPA to [dʑ]Category:Pages with plain IPA before an affixal -iCategory:Pages with plain IPA; and the tensing of obstruents following certain morpheme-final nasals. Other rules are absent in Standard Korean. For instance, a sonorant-final word or morpheme can trigger aspiration (for older speakers) or tensing (for younger speakers) in a subsequent lax consonant. In some cases this is due to an underlying consonant cluster, but not all cases can be explained in this way. Other Jeju-specific processes include the doubling of a word-final consonant when followed by a vowel, glide, or /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and the lenition of /p/Category:Pages with plain IPA to [w]Category:Pages with plain IPA at some word boundaries.[84]
Verbal conjugation can also lead to consonantal changes. Verb stem-final /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /h/Category:Pages with plain IPA are lost before /n/Category:Pages with plain IPA. In the case of verb stems ending in -dCategory:Pages with plain IPA, -pCategory:Pages with plain IPA. -sCategory:Pages with plain IPA, and -kCategory:Pages with plain IPA, the final consonants are always preserved in so-called regular verbs, but in irregular verbs, -dCategory:Pages with plain IPA and -pCategory:Pages with plain IPA are lenited to [ɾ]Category:Pages with plain IPA and [u~w]Category:Pages with plain IPA respectively while -sCategory:Pages with plain IPA and -kCategory:Pages with plain IPA are lost when followed by a vowel.[86]
Underlying consonant clusters
While not permitted in the surface representation of Jeju, morpheme-final consonant clusters can exist in the underlying form. Many cases of post-sonorant aspiration involve morphemes whose Middle Korean cognates feature a final -hCategory:Pages with plain IPA, suggesting that an underlying final -hCategory:Pages with plain IPA after the sonorant should be posited in Jeju as well.[87] Besides these hCategory:Pages with plain IPA-final clusters, Jeju permits a number of other final consonant clusters, including -lkCategory:Pages with plain IPA, -lmCategory:Pages with plain IPA, -mk~ŋkCategory:Pages with plain IPA, -skCategory:Pages with plain IPA,[79] and (in the analysis of the government's orthography) -msCategory:Pages with plain IPA.[88] These clusters surface as a single consonant in isolation or before a consonant, but are fully realized when followed by a vowel.
| Underlying form | Realization in isolation/before consonant | Realization before vowel |
|---|---|---|
ᄇᆞᆰ- /pɒlk/ "to be bright" |
ᄇᆞᆰ고 [pɒk̚k͈o] |
ᄇᆞᆰ언 [pɒlɡən] |
삶 /salm/ "life" |
삶 [sam] |
삶이 [salmi] |
나ᇚ /namk ~ ~ 나ᇬ naŋk ~ ~ 낭 naŋ/ "tree" |
남 [nam ~ ~ 낭 naŋ] |
남기 [namɡi ~ ~ 낭기 naŋɡi ~ ~ 낭이 naŋi] |
데껴ᇝ가 [tek͈jəmɡa] |
데꼄서 [tek͈jəmsə] | |
바ᇧ /pask/ "outside" |
바ᇧ [pat̚] |
밧기 [pat̚k͈i] |
Vowels
Jeju traditionally has a nine-vowel system: the eight vowels of Korean with the addition of ㆍ /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA,[91] a Middle Korean phoneme lost in Seoul in the eighteenth century.[92] The Jeju-do dialect is known to exhibit more conservative vowel sounds preserving older vowel distinctions, compared to standard Korean.
The phonemic identity of ㆍCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text is controversial,[91] but native speakers most commonly realize the phoneme as [ɔ]Category:Pages with plain IPA.[93][94] /æ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA are only distinguished in the initial syllable.[95]
Among younger and less fluent speakers, /æ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA have both raised to /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /o/Category:Pages with plain IPA or /ə/Category:Pages with plain IPA[j] respectively, resulting in a seven-vowel system identical to the vowel inventory of Seoul Korean.[96][97] The raising of Jeju /æ/Category:Pages with plain IPA occurred before the raising of /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA,[98] and may have predated Standard Korean's ongoing merger of /æ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /e/Category:Pages with plain IPA. The subsequent loss of /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA may have been motivated by a language-internal desire for symmetry in the vowel system.[99] On the other hand, the vowel mergers are accelerated among Jeju speakers living in coastal communities more exposed to Standard Korean.[100]
Jeju has two or three glides: /j/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /w/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and possibly /ɰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA. /j/Category:Pages with plain IPA can occur with all vowels except /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /ɨ/Category:Pages with plain IPA. /jæ/Category:Pages with plain IPA and /je/Category:Pages with plain IPA have merged even among speakers who distinguish the monophthongs,[101] and many speakers who retain /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA also merge /jɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA with /jə/Category:Pages with plain IPA.[102] /w/Category:Pages with plain IPA cannot occur with the three back vowels or with /ɨ/Category:Pages with plain IPA. /ɰ/Category:Pages with plain IPA occurs only with /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and the resulting diphthong /ɰi/Category:Pages with plain IPA is generally realized as [ɨ]Category:Pages with plain IPA word-initially and [i]Category:Pages with plain IPA otherwise.[103]
Glide-vowel sequences may be analyzed as diphthongs, with the phonemic identities of [j]Category:Pages with plain IPA, [w]Category:Pages with plain IPA, and [ɰ]Category:Pages with plain IPA being /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA, /o~u/Category:Pages with plain IPA, and /ɨ/Category:Pages with plain IPA respectively.[104]
Vowel phonological processes
Several phonological processes affect the surface realization of Jeju vowels. In one process shared with Standard Korean, a bisyllabic vowel sequence may be contracted to a monosyllabic polyphthong.[107][108]
| English | Uncontracted Jeju form | Contracted Jeju form |
|---|---|---|
| "it was caught" | 젭히엇저Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jepieotjeo | 젭혓저Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jepyeotjeo |
| "cucumber" | 오이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text oi | 웨Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text we |
Vowel-affecting processes are particularly numerous in the verbal paradigm. Verb stem-final -eu is lost before a vowel-initial suffix.[109] Similar to Standard Korean, a stem-final -iCategory:Pages with plain IPA diphthongizes a subsequent vowel by inserting the onglide [j]Category:Pages with plain IPA. Unlike in its sister language, Jeju j-Category:Pages with plain IPAinsertion may occur even with an intervening consonant,[110] and between a verb stem ending in -e, -ae, or -aw and a suffix with initial eo-.[111]
Many of Jeju's consonant-initial verbal suffixes take an initial epenthetic vowel if the previous morpheme ends with a consonant.[k] The default epenthetic vowel is -으-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eu- /ɨ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, but the vowel surfaces as -이-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -i- [i]Category:Pages with plain IPA following a sibilant and as -우-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -u- [u]Category:Pages with plain IPA following an underlying labial.[113]
Like Standard Korean but unlike Middle Korean, Koreanic vowel harmony is no longer generally applicable in all native morphemes[116] but remains productive in sound symbolism and certain verbal suffixes. Jeju has two harmonic classes, yin and yang. The neutral vowel /i/Category:Pages with plain IPA can occur with either class.[104]
| Harmonic class | Vowel correspondences | Sound symbolism | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yin | əCategory:Pages with plain IPA | uCategory:Pages with plain IPA | eCategory:Pages with plain IPA | ɨCategory:Pages with plain IPA | Dark; heavy; dull; negative |
| Yang | aCategory:Pages with plain IPA | oCategory:Pages with plain IPA | æCategory:Pages with plain IPA | ɒCategory:Pages with plain IPA | Bright; light; sharp; positive |
| Neutral | — | ||||
For instance, the perfective aspect marker -엇Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eos takes the vowel harmonic allomorph -앗Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -as after verb stems whose (final) vowel is yang:[117]
| Yin-class allomorph | Yang-class allomorph |
|---|---|
| 먹엇어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text meog-eos-eo "ate" | 갈앗어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gar-as-eo "plowed" |
| 궂엇어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text guj-eos-eo "was bad" | 곱앗어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gob-as-eo "hid" |
| 긋엇어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text geus-eos-eo "drew a line" | ᄃᆞᆯ앗어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text dawr-as-eo "ran" |
In certain cases, suffix allomorphs do not match the harmonic class of the previous vowel. Verb stems with final vowel /u/Category:Pages with plain IPA or /ɨ/Category:Pages with plain IPA take the yang allomorph if their Middle Korean forms were /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA, thus conserving their original harmonic class while violating their current one. Disyllabic stems that end in -uCategory:Pages with plain IPA also take the yang allomorph, but monosyllabic -uCategory:Pages with plain IPA stems or disyllabic -uCCategory:Pages with plain IPA stems do not.[118]
Phonotactics
Jeju syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C) with G being a glide.[119]
| Syllable structure | Jeju[120] | IPA |
|---|---|---|
| V | 이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text i "this" | [i]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| CV | 따Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text tta "earth" | [t͈a]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| GV (or VV) | 웨Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text we "cause; principle" | [we]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| CGV (or CVV) | 쉬Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text swi "filling" [for dumplings, etc.] | [swi]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| VC | 알Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text al "egg" | [al]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| CVC | ᄀᆞᆺCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kawt "edge" | [kɔt̚]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| GVC (or VVC) | 윳Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text yut "neighbor" | [jut̚]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
| CGVC (or CVVC) | 광Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kwang "lunatic" | [kwaŋ]Category:Pages with plain IPA |
As in Standard Korean, ng- /ŋ/Category:Pages with plain IPA cannot occur syllable-initially, and l- /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA does not occur word-initially in native words.[121]
Prosody
Jeju does not have phonemic vowel length, stress, or tone. Its phonological hierarchy is characterized by accentual phrases similar to those of Standard Korean, with a basic Low-High-Low-High tonal pattern varying according to sentence type, but there are also important differences in the two languages' prosody.[122] Jeju has a weaker tonal distinction within the first half of the accentual phrase than Seoul Korean does, while its aspirate consonants do not produce as significant a high pitch as their Seoul equivalents.[123] Jeju uses more contour tones, where the pitch shifts within a single syllable, than Seoul Korean.[124] Unlike in Seoul Korean, older and fluent speakers of Jeju will also lengthen the final vowel of both clauses in alternative questions.[125]
Grammar
Jeju is typologically similar to Korean, both being head-final agglutinative languages.[126] However, the two languages show significant differences in the verbal paradigm, such as Jeju's use of a dedicated conditional suffix.[127]
Nouns
Jeju nouns may be a single morpheme, a compound of multiple nouns, or a base noun with a merged attributive verb, or form through derivational affixes attached to nouns or verb stems.[128][129] In compound nouns that include a native morpheme, the phoneme -s-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text may intervene between the two elements.[130] Because this "in-between sCategory:Pages with plain IPA" appears only after a vowel and before a consonant, it is never realized as [s]Category:Pages with plain IPA but almost always surfaces as [t̚]Category:Pages with plain IPA.[131]
- Single-morpheme noun: 쉐Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text swe "cattle"
- Noun compound:
쉐
swe
"cattle"
+
궤기
gwegi
"meat"
→
쉐궤기
swe-gwegi
"beef"
- Noun compound with -s-Category:Pages with plain IPA:
다리
dari
"leg"
+
빙
bing
"illness"
→
다릿빙
dari-t-bing
"leg illness"
- Noun with merged attributive verb:
앚-
aj-
"to sit"
+
일
il
"work"
→
앚인일
aj-in-il
"work done while sitting"
- Noun derived from noun through affix:
ᄌᆞᆷ
jawm
"sleep"
→
ᄌᆞᆷ주시
jawm-jusi
"sleepyhead"
- Noun derived from verb through affix:
먹-
meog-
"to eat"
→
먹쉬
meog-swi
"glutton"
ᄃᆞᆺ-
daws-
"to be warm"
→
ᄃᆞᆺ임
daws-im
"warmth"
(Examples from Yang C., Yang S, and O'Grady 2019 and Ko J. 2011a[128][129])
Some Jeju nouns are bound nouns, meaning that they cannot appear independently without a noun phrase.[132] The example below features the bound noun 침Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text chim "worth" accompanied by the obligatory attributive verb.
Jeju has two suffixing plural markers, which are obligatory for plural nouns accompanied by determiners and optional otherwise. The plural marker -덜Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -deol can occur with all nouns and pronouns. The marker -네Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ne is restricted for humans and pronouns, and can also have an associative meaning: e.g. 만수네Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text Mansu-ne "Mansu and his family" (lit. 'Mansu and his associates'). The combined sequence -네덜Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ne-deol is sometimes also used.[134]
Nouns accompanied by numerals usually take a variety of classifiers, such as 재Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jae for counting trees and 곡지Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gokji for counting songs. Classifiers for cardinals are unmarked, but those for ordinals are followed by the ordinal-marking 체Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text che.[135]
낭
nang
tree
ᄒᆞᆫ
hawn
one
재
jae
CLF
"one tree"
낭
nang
tree
두
du
two
재
jae
CLF
체
che
ORD
"the second tree"
Noun particles
Jeju marks noun case and other semantic relations through suffixing noun particles.[136] Particles that mark the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases are very frequently omitted.[137] The table below is not exhaustive and lists only some of the most significant particles.
| Function | Particle[l] | Allomorphy and variants | Example | Usage notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative[138][139][m] | After vowel: 가Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ga | 할망이 halmang-i ᄀᆞᆯ안야? gawr-an-ya "Did grandmother say that?" |
Does not appear in the complement, unlike in Standard Korean.[140] Cannot be topicalized.[139] | |
| Accusative[141] | Rare, formal post-vowel form: 를Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -reul | 시리레 siri-re ᄀᆞ를 gawreu-l 담으라. dam-eura "Put the flour into the steamer." |
Unlike in Korean, can be followed by other particles, e.g. 늘광Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text neu-l-gwang 2SG-ACC-COM "with you".[142] | |
| Genitive[143] | — | 집이 jib-i 밧은 bas-eun 어듸 eodui 잇어? is-eo "Where is your family's field?" |
-i is rare, but required when the subsequent noun phrase begins with an adnominal clause.[144] | |
산 san 읫 ui-t 낭 nang "the trees on the mountain" |
Called "pseudo-genitive" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019.[145] Appears in certain compounds, as mentioned above. May also follow a locative marker to attribute a noun. | |||
| Dative[146] | 가의ᄀᆞ라 gaui-gawra 공븨ᄒᆞ렌 gongbui-haw-ren ᄒᆞᆸ서. haw-b-seo "Please tell him to study." |
Restricted to human addressees of verbs of speaking. | ||
그 geu 사름신디 sareum-sindi ᄀᆞᆯ읍디가? gawr-eup-di-ga "Did you talk to that person?" |
May be used with the verb 싯다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text sitda "to exist" to form possessive constructions, with the dative marking the possessor.
May also be suffixed with the allative particle -re to give further emphasis and a connotation of movement, or with the locative particle -seo to express an ablative meaning.[147][148] | |||
| Due to interference from Korean cognate 한테Category:Articles containing Korean-language text -hante: 한티Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -hanti, 안테Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ante[149] | 느안티 neu-anti 주마. ju-ma "I will give [it] to you." | |||
| — | 누게아피 nuge-api 줍디가? ju-p-di-ga "To whom did you give [it]?" | |||
| Topic-marking[150][151] | Rarely, after vowel: 는Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -neun | 오널은 oneor-eun 궹일날이우다. gwengilnal-i-u-da "Today is Sunday." |
Either introduces a new topic or establishes a contrast. Must have a contrastive meaning sentence-internally. | |
| — | 하르방이랑 hareubang-irang 저레 jeo-re 앚입서. aj-ib-seo "Grandfather [and not anyone else], sit there." |
Contrastive meaning only. | ||
| Also used: (이)라근에Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(i)rageune | 느라근 neu-rageun 집이 jib-i 가라. ga-ra. "You [and not anyone else], go home." | |||
| Location-related[152][153] | After -iCategory:Pages with plain IPA and possibly -lCategory:Pages with plain IPA: 에Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -e
Occasionally after any vowel: 예Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ye |
성 seong 바당의 badang-i 셔? sy-eo "Is my older sibling at the sea?" |
Refers to location for stative verbs and direction for dynamic verbs; may also refer to time.
According to Kim Jee-hong 2015, -(y)e is not an allomorph but a different locative morpheme used for clearly bounded spaces, such as tables or containers. | |
| Post-vowel form -seo sometimes occurs after consonant. | ᄒᆞᆨ게서 hawkge-seo 공븨ᄒᆞ게. gongbui-haw-ge "Let's study at school." |
Refers to location for action verbs. | ||
| — | 밧디 bat-di "In the field" |
Variants of -i, -iseo used to emphasize the boundedness of the referent.
Analyzed by Yang S., Yang C., and O'Grady 2019 not as a separate morpheme but as a bound noun meaning "place", juxtaposed with the locational noun. | ||
| After liquid consonant -lCategory:Pages with plain IPA and sometimes after vowel: 르레/러레Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -leure/leore
Initial syllable deu- also found as deo-, teu-, ti-, di-, de-, or ri- |
이착드레 i-chak-deure 비와불라. biw-a-bul-la "Pour [it] to this side." |
Denotes direction of movement, like English "to; into; toward".
Moon S. and Kim W. 2017 analyzes 레Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -re and 드레Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -deure as distinct particles, with -re having a solely directional meaning while -deure simultaneously emphasizes both the direction and the location of the direction's destination.[154] Most sources treat the two as allomorphs, especially when appended to nouns.[155][156][157] | ||
| Comitative and conjunctive[158] | — | 가읜 gaui-n 어멍이영 eomeong-iyeong ᄉᆞ답ᄒᆞ염ㅅ우게. sawdab-haw-yeoms-u-ge "S/he is doing the laundry with his/her mom." |
Kim Jee-hong 2015 notes:
Like in Middle Korean but unlike in Modern Seoul Korean, comitative markers may occur on the final element being linked and also take other case markers.[160] 책광 chaek-gwang book-COM 가방광을 gabang-gwang-eul bag-COM-ACC 주다 ju-da give-SE "Give books and bags" | |
지슬광 jiseul-gwang ᄃᆞᆨ세기 dawksegi "potatoes and eggs" | ||||
| Also used: ᄒᆞ고Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -hawgo | 낭ᄒᆞ고 nang-hawgok 고장 gojang ᄒᆞᄊᆞᆯ hawsseul 싱그라. singgeu-ra "Please plant some trees and flowers." |
Verbs
The Jeju verb consists of a root that is followed by suffixes that provide grammatical information such as voice, tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, relative social status, and the formality of the utterance. Jeju verbs include not only action verbs familiar to English speakers such as 먹다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text meokda "to eat" or 베리다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text berida "to see", but also adjectival verbs such as 버치다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text beochida "to be heavy" or 훍다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text hultta "to be thick".[161] Verbs can take derivational suffixes to form adverbs and nouns.[162]
- ᄇᆞ디-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bawdi- "to be close"[163] → ᄇᆞ디게Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bawdi-ge "closely"
- 궂-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text guj- "to be bad" → 궂임Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text guj-im "badness"
- 입-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ib- "to wear" → 입기Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ip-gi "wearing"
Especially for wh-questions and exclamations, Jeju speakers commonly use a verbal noun in place of a verb inflected for tense-aspect-mood.[164]
날도
nal-do
day-even
영
yeong
like.this
ᄃᆞᆺ임광!
daws-im-gwang
warm-NMLZ-COM
"What a warm day!" (lit. 'With the warmth of even the day like this!')
Verbs may also be given an attributive meaning through one of four adnominal suffixes.[165]
- Adnominal suffix 은Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)n:[p] Past event for action verbs, achieved state for adjectival verbs[166]
나가
na-ga
탄
ta-n
미깡
mikkang
"The tangerine that I picked"
ᄃᆞᆺ인
daws-in
구들
gudeul
"The [already] warm room"
- Adnominal suffix 단Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -dan: Habitual action in the past[167]
뎅기단
denggi-dan
웃드르
utdeureu
"The mountain villages that we used to go to"
ᄃᆞᆺ단
daws-dan
구들
gudeul
"The room that used to be warm"
- Adnominal suffix (으)는Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)neun:[p] Nonpast/present event or state, commonly habitual; cannot occur with other suffixes and must combine directly with the bare verb stem;[168] can occur with adjectival verbs, unlike in Korean[169]
아는
a-neun
예청
yecheong
"The woman who I know"
ᄃᆞᆺ이는
daws-ineun
구들
gudeul
"The [usually] warm room"
- Adnominal suffix 을Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)l:[p] Future/conjectural event or state[170]
ᄐᆞᆮ을
tawd-eul
ᄉᆞᆼ키
sawngki
"Vegetables that s/he will pluck"
Pre-final suffixes
Jeju has a number of pre-final verbal suffixes: tense-aspect-mood markers which follow the verb stem but cannot appear at the end of the inflected verb.[171] The exact number of these suffixes is unclear because scholars disagree on the correct morphological segmentation. One analysis of the suffix paradigm, as presented in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, is given below.
There is relatively widespread agreement on the existence of the following four discrete TAM morphemes, presented in the order they co-occur: the continuative aspect marker 어ᇝCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eoms, the perfective aspect marker 엇Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eos, the prospective mood marker 읔Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)k, and the realis mood marker (으)느Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)neu.[172][173][174] Depending on the analysis of the aforementioned epenthetical vowels that precede many verbal suffixes, the base forms of the three morphemes may alternately be analyzed as 엄시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eomsi, 어시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eosi, 크Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -keu, and 느Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -neu.[175]
-eoms(i) is an imperfective or continuative aspect particle, referring to a process perceived as ongoing and similar to the English construction "be VERB-ing."[172][176][177] With an adjectival verb, it has an inchoative ("beginning to; become") meaning. A verb with -eoms(i) is interpreted as either present or future by default,[172] and some analyses interpret the particle as also conveying the present tense for specific events and states.[178][179] The suffix has a vowel-harmonic variant -ams(i), as well as allomorphs -yeoms(i), -yams(i), and -ms(i) when following certain vowels.[172]
ᄀᆞᆯ개비
gawlgaebi
frog
ᄎᆞᆽ아ᇝ어.
chawj-ams-eo
search-CONT-SE
"S/he is looking for the frog."Category:Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations
짚어ᇝ저.
jip-eoms-jeo
be.deep-CONT-SE
"It is becoming deep."Category:Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations
Often characterized as a perfective aspect marker,[180][181] -eos(i) has also been described as a present perfect marker[182] and as behaving as a perfective marker with some verbs and as a past tense marker with others.[183] -eos(i) can express non-past events in certain constructions that call for verbs "conceptualized in their entirety", such as a hypothetical future event. In adjectival verbs, it may also refer to a current state that contrasts with a past situation.[181] -eos(i) can also be doubled for a habitual or a past perfect interpretation.[184] Also like -eoms, this suffix takes the vowel-harmonic variant -as(i) and has allomorphs -yeos(i), -yas(i), and -s(i) after certain vowels.[185]
지슬
jiseul
potato
팟저.
pa-t-jeo
dig-PFV-SE
"S/he dug potatoes."
날
nal
day
막
mak
very
얼엇저.
eor-eot-jeo
be.cold-PFV-SE
"It is very cold [compared to before]."
The prospective mood marker 읔/으크Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)k/(eu)keu[p] marks the subject's intention in first-person-subject declarative sentences or second-person-subject interrogative sentences, and the speaker's conjecture otherwise. -(eu)k may also have a future-tense interpretation.[186]
ᄂᆞᆷ삐
nawmppi
radish
데끼켜.
dekki-k-yeo
throw-PROSP-SE
"I will throw away the radish."
-(eu)k can only be followed by a small number of suffixes in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's analysis.[187] Some analyses treat the initial vowel of the following suffix as part of an allomorph or nuanced variant of -(eu)k, so that 가커라Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gakeora "[I] will go" may be segmented as ga-k-eora or ga-keo-ra.[188]
The realis or indicative mood marker (으)느Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)neu[p] indicates "a fact or habitual action in the nonpast"[187] which the speaker perceives to be true in general, permanently, or over a longer duration of time, as demonstrated in the contrast below.[189][190] The putative non-past-tense marker -(eu)n may also be analyzed as an allomorph of -(eu)neu.[191] In this context, the morpheme -(eu)n(eu) has also been interpreted as a perfect marker (not to be confused with the perfective marker).[192]
이
i
this
신
sin
shoe
느안티
neu-anti
2SG-DAT
"Is this shoe [too] big for you [right now]?"
이
i
this
신
sin
shoe
느안티
neu-anti
2SG-DAT
크느냐?
keu-neu-nya
be.big-IND-INTR
"Has this shoe [always] been [too] big for you?"
The existence of the Korean subject-honorific marker (으)시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)si is controversial for Jeju, with some scholars arguing that it was entirely absent and others that it was restricted to higher registers.[193] Ko J. 2011b notes that it was used only "by officials while referring to people of very high status and by the seonbi of the educated classes."[194]
Segmenting verb-final suffixes
The segmentation of verb-final elements is controversial. The two recent extensive treatments of the topic, Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019[8] and Kim Jee-hong 2015,[195] give incompatible analyses of the suffix paradigm.
Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 includes a slot for tense in the Jeju verb, with three dedicated markers.[196]
- Non-past tense: 은Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)n[p]
- Past tense: 언Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eon, with vowel-harmonic allomorph 안Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -an
- Future tense: 을Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)l[p]
They further divide verb-final suffixes into three categories: Type 1, which cannot occur with tense markers; Type 2, which must occur with either a tense marker or the aspect marker -eoms, which loses its underlying -sCategory:Pages with plain IPA before a Type 2 suffix; and a mixed type, which can occur with the non-past marker but not with the other two tense markers. The vast majority of suffixes are categorized as Tense 1 and thus cannot follow a tense marker.[197] Uniquely among pre-final suffixes, the past tense marker -eon can also appear without a final suffix.[198]
Examples of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation are given below.
Aspect + Type 1 sequence Tense + Type 2 sequence 지슬
jiseul
potato
ᄆᆞᆫ
mawn
all
데꼇어라.
dekky-eos-eora'"`UNIQ--ref-000001D5-QINU`"'
throw-PFV-SE
"[I noticed that he/she] had thrown away all the potatoes."
파치
pachi
fallen.tangerines
잘
jal
well
줏언게.
jus-eon-ge'"`UNIQ--ref-000001D8-QINU`"'
pick-PST-SE
"[I saw him/her] pick tangerines well."
In Kim Jee-hong's analysis, verb-final single morphemes are termed "canonical endings". Canonical endings are contrasted with a wide variety of "non-canonical endings", formed by the fusion of various grammatical elements such as multiple canonical endings, truncated conjunctive and embedded sentences, and bound nouns[u] connected to the verb stem or a canonical ending via an attributive or a nominalizer.[201][202] The most common canonical component of these non-canonical endings is the suffix 어Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eo (vowel-harmonic allomorph 아Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -a), which Kim calls the unmarked "default ending".[203][204]
Since Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's tenses align with the aforementioned attributive suffixes,[205] sentences they analyze as "Tense-Type 2 Suffix" sequences are often analyzed as non-canonical endings with a "Canonical ending-Attributive-Bound noun" composition by Kim Jee-hong. Many of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's Type 1 suffixes are also interpreted as polymorphemic non-canonical endings. Kim Jee-hong also segments some of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's mixed-type suffixes so that the base form of the suffix includes the -n of the latter's non-past tense marker.[206]
Examples from Kim Jee-hong 2015's analysis, directly corresponding to the examples above of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, are given below. The "default ender" -eo is bolded.
그
geu
MED
낭
nang
tree
다
da
all
컷어라.
k-eos-eo-ra'"`UNIQ--ref-000001E3-QINU`"'
grow-PFV-CE-CE
"[I noticed that] that tree had fully grown."
지금도
jigeum-do
now-too
고완게.
gow-a-n-ge'"`UNIQ--ref-000001E6-QINU`"'
be.pretty-CE-ATTR-thing
"[I saw that s/he] was still pretty."
Sentence enders
Jeju has a number of clause-final suffixes, called "sentence enders" in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019[209] and "terminal suffixes" (종결어미Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; jonggyeol eomiCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text) in Korean,[210] that provide information such as degree of formality, social status, evidentality, and modality.[209] Sentence enders may consist of one or multiple morphemes.[187][201] Kim Jee-hong argues for four speech levels in Jeju, defined by the degree of formality and deference their sentence enders connote: informal and plain (non-honorific); formal and plain; informal and honorific, marked by the morpheme 우Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -u-, and formal and honorific, featuring the morpheme 읍Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eup.[211] An archaic speech level showing extreme deference is attested from shamanic chants.[212]
As different segmentation hypotheses produce different sentence enders. the chart below will list only a small, illustrative sample of the dozens of suffixes that appear in Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-h. 2015. The classification is based on Kim Jee-hong 2017,[213] which differs from Kim Jee-hong 2015.[v]
| Morpheme[w] | Example[x] | Usage | Sources | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 어/아Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -eo/a[y] | 가이 gai 고와? gow-a "Is s/he pretty?" | Kim Jee-hong considers -eo the unmarked sentence ender. Depending on suprasegmentals, the suffix may be used in a plain statement, a question, a command, an exclamation, or a construction in which the speaker informs the addressee of information that the latter did not know and expects a confirmatory response. The suffix is also found in Standard Korean with a similar degree of versatility and widespread use. | [215][216] |
| (으)주Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -(eu)ju | 만수 Mansu 말 mal 잘 jal ᄀᆞᆮ주. gawd-ju "Mansu talks well." | According to Kim Jee-hong, -ju conveys a statement of presumption or assumption without direct supporting experience, and invites the addressee to confirm the statement's veracity. Kim also states that -ju may end a confirmatory question with the implication that the addressee should agree with the speaker.
According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady, -ju expresses a statement of intention or strong assertion with a first-person subject and a statement of judgement or assumption with a third-person subject, and may also convey regret or advice. | [217][218] |
| (은)게Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | (-eun)-ge | 날 nal 우쳣인게. uchy-eos-i(-)n-ge "[I see that] the day was cloudy." | (-eun)-ge generally conveys a statement of fact that the speaker has directly observed, or has inferred from a direct observation.
In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, the suffix is given as -ge, a special Type 2 suffix which can only combine with the two tense markers ending in -n. Kim Jee-hong classifies it as a non-canonical ending composed of a fused attributive -eun and bound noun. | [219][220] |
| (으)멘Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | (-eu)men | 느 neu 무시거 musigeo 시치멘? sichi-men "What are you washing?" | (-eu)men is used for both statements and questions, but only when the speaker and addressee are emotionally intimate. When the verb is inflected for aspect, (-eu)men is used to refer to a past event that was observed or inferred from observation. If uninflected, the suffix denotes an ongoing event. | [221][222] |
| Morpheme[w] | Example[x] | Usage | Sources | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -da | 도새기 dosaegi 것 geot 먹엇다. meog-eot-da "The pig ate the fodder." | Unmarked formal statement ender. Dictionary citation form.[223] | [224][225] |
| (으)저Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -(eu)jeo | 하르방 hareubang 몸 mom ᄀᆞᆷ앗저. gawm-at-jeo "Grandfather took a bath." | -jeo expresses a factual statement with the premise that the addressee is unaware of the fact, and may implicitly either urge the addressee to accept this new information or rebuke the addressee for not having known it. With a first-person subject, -jeo conveys the speaker's intention to do something. Whether these two uses of -jeo are connected uses of the same morpheme, or whether they are two different homophonous morphemes, is disputed. | [226][227] |
| 나Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -na | 이 i this 풀 pul plant 사름덜이 sareum-deor-i person-PL-NOM 먹나. meong-na eat-na "This plant is edible." | Expresses a statement of fact with the implication that it is an intrinsic or permanent quality or state; commonly found with proverbs and aphorisms. -na is also used to ask questions about facts (including non-permanent facts), where it has a "somewhat authoritative tone". As with -jeo, whether these two uses reflect the same morpheme or two homophonous ones is disputed. | [228][229] |
| 고나Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -gona | 이디 i-di 물 mul 새라낫고나! saer-a-na-t-gona "The water had leaked here!" | Expresses a statement of surprise or excitement.
Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 gives the suffix as 구나Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -guna instead. Kim Jee-hong reports that the suffix can be shortened to a single syllable 고Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -go. | [230][231] |
| 가 은가Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -ga (-eu)n-ga | 그듸 geu-di 무사 musa ᄃᆞᆺ앗인가? daws-as-i(-)n-ga "Why is that place warm?" | Conveys a question directed to the addressee.
Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffixes as Type 2 ender -ga, with -n-ga not a genuine ending but -ga following a tense marker ending in -n. Kim Jee-hong distinguishes the canonical ending -ga with the non-canonical -eun-ga, which is analyzed as having a fused attributive. | [232][233] |
| 은고Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | (-eu)n-go | 선싕 seonsing 무시거 musigeo 테왓인고? tew-as-i(-)n-go "I wonder what the teacher distributed." | Has a conjectural connotation. Often used in questions addressed to oneself, and is less direct than -eun-ga when asked to the addressee.
Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 analyzes the suffix as mixed type ender -go, with -eun-go being -go preceded by the non-past tense marker (and gaining this conjectural meaning only in the presence of the non-past tense marker). Kim Jee-hong analyzes it as a non-canonical ending with a fused attributive. | [234][235] |
| 디아Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -dia | 는 neu-n 무사 musa 얼언디아? eor-eo(-)n-dia "Why are you cold?" | Used to ask a question about which the addressee has direct relevant experience. In most cases the addressee is the subject of the verb, although third-person subjects have been attested. Appears in Kim Jee-hong's work in the contracted form 댜Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -dya. | [236][237] |
| (으)게Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -(eu)ge | 먹엇이게! meog-eos-i(-)ge "Let's get finished eating!" | Used in propositions (not commands as in Standard Korean). | [238][239] |
| (으)라Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -(eu)ra | 먹으라! meog-eura "Eat!" | Used to command immediate action. | [240][241] |
| (으)심Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text (으)순Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text | -(eu)sim -(eu)sun | ᄌᆞ미나게 jawmi-na-ge 놀순! nol-sun "Have fun!" | Used by older women when talking to younger adults not old enough for honorifics and not young or emotionally close enough for informal speech. May convey statements, questions, requests, and proposals. | [242][243][244] |
The honorific verbs, which show deference to the addressee, are formed by a special suffix that can be followed only by a small number of sentence enders.
The informal honorific forms are marked by 우Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -u- or (으)우Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)u-.[p] The former is used with the copula verb 이다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ida and with all inflected verbs, and the latter is used with uninflected adjectival verbs. -u- and -(eu)u- may take the alternative form 수Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -su- after a verb inflected for aspect and a non-liquid consonant, respectively.[245] The informal honorific form cannot occur with uninflected action verbs.[246] The two suffixes may only be followed by the sentence enders in the table below.[247][248] Informal honorific requests cannot be formed morphologically.[248]
| Honorific | Sentence ender | Example | Usage |
|---|---|---|---|
| (으)우Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)u- | 다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -da | 물 mul 질엇우다. jil-eos-u-da "S/he drew water." | Used for statements. |
| 게Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ge 궤Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -gwe | ᄎᆞᆯ레 chawlle 멩글앗우게. menggeul-as-u-ge "I have made side dishes." | Used to report new information; restricted to inflected verbs. | |
| 꿰Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -kkwe | 짚우우꿰. jip-uu-kkwe "It is deep." | Used to report new information or an opinion; restricted to uninflected verbs. | |
| 가/강Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ga(ng)[249] 과/광Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -gwa(ng) 꽈/꽝Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -kkwa(ng) | ᄃᆞᆨ세기 dawk-segi 데끼쿠과? dekki-k-u-gwa "Will you throw away the eggs?" | Used in questions. -gwa(ng) is generally restricted to inflected verbs. Due to sound symbolism, the tense endings are considered emphatic.[249] |
The formal honorific forms involve the honorific marker 읍Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)p-[p] followed by one or two morphemes. Only the six following formal honorific forms are possible.[250][251]
| Honorific | Evidential | Sentence ender | Example[x] | Usage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 읍Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)p- | 네/니Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ne/ni | 다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -da | 그 geu 신 sin 만수신디 Mansu-sindi 족읍네다. jog-eup-ne-da "[I know] those shoes must be small for Mansu." | A formal statement founded on prior knowledge, e.g. of Mansu's foot size. Implies that the rationale for the statement continues in the present and may be shared or experienced by the addressee. |
| 까/깡Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -kka(ng) | 나가 na-ga ᄆᆞᆫ처 mawncheo 앚입네까? aj-ip-ne-kka "Should I sit first?" | A formal question that the addressee is expected to be able to answer without direct observation. | ||
| 데/디Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -de/di | 다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -da | 그 geu 신 sin 만수신디 Mansu-sindi 족읍데다. jog-eup-de-da "[I saw] those shoes were small for Mansu." | A formal statement motivated by a direct, external past observation that cannot be experienced firsthand by the addressee. As the observation must be external, the first-person singular subject is prohibited except in highly atypical situations such as dissociation. | |
| 가/강Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ga(ng) | 날이 nal-i 얼큽디가? eol-k(-)eu(-)p-di-ga "[Based on your observation,] will the day be cold?" | A formal question that the addressee is expected to answer based on a past observation relating to a third party. | ||
| — | 서Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -seo | 이거 i-geo 먹읍서. meog-eup-seo "Please eat this." | A formal request. | |
| 주Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ju | 지슬 jiseul 줏입주. jus-ip-ju "Let's gather the potatoes." | Expresses speaker's intention with a first-person subject and advice or judgment otherwise; widely used for suggestions and propositions. |
Connectives
Jeju uses an array of verb-final connective suffixes to link clauses within sentences,[252] much as English does with conjunctions such as and, or, that, but, and because.
Some Jeju connectives, such as the suffixes 언/엉Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eon/eong "and", occur in pairs with one variant ending in -n and the other in -ng. Hong Chong-rim and Song Sang-jo both note that the choice between -n and -ng is often determined by the inflections of the subsequent clause; certain pre-final suffixes and sentence enders require a n-connective in the previous clause, while others require a ng-connective.[253][254] Hong suggests that -n is used for specific and objective events and states, while -ng implies a general and subjective event or state.[255] Song argues that -n is used for completed or achieved verbs, and -ng for incomplete or unachieved verbs.[256] The nuances below are thus possible.[257][258]
먹언
meog-eon
eat-CONN
가민
ga-min
go-COND
"Having eaten, if [I] go"
먹엉
meog-eong
eat-CONN
가민
ga-min
go-COND
"If [I] eat and [then] go"
오늘
oneul
today
비
bi
rain
오란
o-ran
come-CONN
일
il
work
못
mot
cannot
ᄒᆞᆫ다
haw-n-da
do-NPST-SE
"It's raining, so [we] can't work"
오늘
oneul
today
비
bi
rain
오랑
o-rang
come-CONN
일
il
work
못
mot
cannot
ᄒᆞᆫ다
haw-n-da
do-NPST-SE
"[I presume that] it's raining/going to rain, so [we] can't work"
The distinction between -n and -ng does not exist in mainland Korean varieties.[259][260] Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 reports that "the contrast between -eong and -eon appears to be disappearing, and the distinctions that remain are subtle and variable."[172]
An important class of connectives, used for reporting speech and thoughts, is formed by the suffix 엔/엥Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -en/-eng, which fuses with sentence enders as in the example of -da below.[261]
"'I am going.'"Category:Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations
가ᇝ덴
ga-ms-den
go-CONT-REP
"[S/he] said that [s/he] was going."Category:Articles with ambiguous glossing abbreviations
Similarly, informal honorific conjectural k-u-da becomes 켄Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ken; plain forms -ju and -jeo become 젠Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -jen; question enders -ga and -go become 겐Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -gen and 곤Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -gon; honorific imperative -eup-seo becomes 읍센Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eup-sen; and so forth.[261] These fused suffixes may be used for both quotative and reportive purposes. In Standard Korean, indirect speech is strictly distinguished from the quotative by the removal of addressee honorifics and the switching of pronouns. In Jeju, the lines between direct and indirect speech are more blurred. All four forms below—given in order of increasing indirectness—are in use, and have the same meaning, "He said [to a superior] that he was going home."[262][z]
"난
na-n
1SG-TOP
집이
jib-i
house-LOC
가ᇝ우다"엔
ga-ms-u-da-en
go-CONT-HON-SE-QUOT
ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.
gawr-at-su-da
say-PFV-HON-SE
[direct quote]
난
na-n
1SG-TOP
집이
jib-i
house-LOC
가ᇝ우덴
ga-ms-u-den
go-CONT-HON-REP
ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.
gawr-at-su-da
say-PFV-HON-SE
[quotative fused]
진
ji-n
3SG-TOP
집이
jib-i
house-LOC
가ᇝ우덴
ga-ms-u-den
go-CONT-HON-REP
ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.
gawr-at-su-da
say-PFV-HON-SE
[pronouns changed]
진
ji-n
3SG-TOP
집이
jib-i
house-LOC
가ᇝ덴
ga-ms-den
go-CONT-REP
ᄀᆞᆯ앗수다.
gawr-at-su-da
say-PFV-HON-SE
[honorific neutralized]
Other connectives include (으)민Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)min "if"; (으)난Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -(eu)nan "because"; and 단/당Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -dan/dang "after".[w][263]
Auxiliary and light verbs
Jeju has many auxiliary verbs that are linked to the preceding main verb by the morpheme 어/아Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -eo/a.[y] These include 안네다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text anneda "to give", for an action that benefits a superior; 불다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bulda "to throw away", for an action yielding a complete result; and 지다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jida "to become", for a change of state. Jida is also used to indicate ability.[264]
일
il
work
하영
hayeong
a.lot
헤노난
he-nonan
do-because
"I will become close to dying because I work a lot."
Jeju also uses light verbs, which have little semantic meaning but combine with nouns to form verbs. The most common light verb is ᄒᆞ다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text hawda "to do", e.g. 부름씨Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bureumssi "errand" → 부름씨ᄒᆞ다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bureumssi-hawda "to run an errand".[266] There is also a large inventory of periphrastic phrases that convey modality.[267]
Post-phrasal particles
Jeju has a small group of particles that commonly occur at the very end of phrases or sentences, many of which play important roles as discourse markers. The four principal ones are the formality marker 마씀Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -masseum and the emphatic markers 게Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -ge, 이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -i, and 양Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -yang.[268]
-masseum (variants 마씸Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -massim, 마씨Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -massi) may occur after subsentential phrases such as a bare or case-inflected noun, or attach to a small number of mostly plain sentence enders.[269] The particle shows the speaker's deference towards the addressee, but is considered more emotionally intimate than the verbally inflected honorifics. In certain contexts, -masseum may be used with an intention to snub the addressee.[270]
-ge is a discourse marker that attaches to adverbs, nouns and noun particles, and both sentence enders and connectives. It adds emphasis to the utterance[271] and is often used to agree with or confirm something the addressee has just said.[272] -i is used similarly to -ge, but is weaker in its emphasis.[273] Both cannot be used while addressing a social superior, and -i also cannot appear in formal speech.[274] Both particles can also appear in isolation: ge as a strong affirmation to a question, i as an indication that the speaker has not heard or does not believe what has been said.[275]
-yang shows deference, but is considered more informal than -masseum.[276] At the end of a sentence, it emphasizes the speaker's beliefs or attitudes. For example, a question becomes a rhetorical one when -yang is attached: 이시카Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text is-ik-a "Could there be?" → 이시카양Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text is-ik-a-yang "How could there be?"[277] The particle is also commonly used for sarcastic mock deference, such as by parents while scolding children.[278] Sentence-initially or internally, the suffix may establish the preceding element as the topic of discourse.[279] Yang is also used in isolation as an interjection to get the attention of unfamiliar individuals, such as a shopkeeper, or to request the addressee to repeat what they have just said.[280]
In the example below from Yang C. 2009, three of the four particles discussed above are used.[281]
Granddaughter: 할마니,
halmani,
이디가
idi-ga
말로만
mal-loman
들어난
deureo-nan
모슬포우꽈?
Moseulpo-ukkwa?
"Grandmother, is this place Moseulpo, which I've only heard of?"
Grandmother: ᄋᆞ
aw
맞다게,
matda-ge,
이디가
idi-ga
모슬포여.
Moseulpo-yeo.
"Yes, you're indeed correct, this place is Moseulpo."
Granddaughter: 모슬포양...
Moseulpo-yang...
게민
gemin
어떵허연
eotteong-heoyeon
모슬포옌
Moseulpo-yen
ᄒᆞ엿인신고마씸?
hawyeosinsingo-massim?
ᄒᆞᆨ교에서
hawkgyo-eseo
숙제
sukje
내연마씸.
naeyeon-massim.
"Moseulpo, right... So why do they call it Moseulpo, please? They gave us an assignment at school, please."
Note the granddaughter's use of the verbally inflected honorific -u- and the deference-marking massim and yang while addressing the grandmother.
Pronouns and deixis
Jeju has the following basic personal pronouns.[282]
| Singular | Plural | Usage | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | 나/내Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text na/nae "I; me" | 우리(덜)Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text uri(-deol) "we; us" | |
| 2nd person | 느/니Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text neu/ni "you (s.)" | 느네(덜)Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text neu-ne-(deol) "you (pl.)" | For younger, emotionally intimate, or socially inferior individuals |
| 지Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ji "you (s.)" | 지네(덜)Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ji-ne(-deol) "you (pl.)" | For younger individuals, but more respectful than neu/ni | |
| No overt pronoun | For older individuals | ||
| 3rd person | None per se.
Informally, demonstratives used before 아의Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ai: 가이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gai "him/her" (lit. 'that person'), etc. | ||
According to Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019, there are four basic deictic demonstratives in Jeju.[283] Most other sources mention three, which are identical to those of Standard Korean.[284][285][286]
- Proximal: 이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text i "this"
- Medial or absent: 그Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text geu "that"
- Distal: 저Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jeo "that"
Vocabulary
Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and "a sizeable number" of words are identical with Korean.[287] There are false friends between the languages, such as Korean 감다Category:Articles containing Korean-language text gamda "to wash hair" and Jeju ᄀᆞᆷ다Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gawmda "to wash the body".[287] Jeju also preserves many Middle Korean terms now lost in Korean, such as 갓Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gat "wife; woman" and 어시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text eosi "parent".[4] Like Korean, Jeju uses many Sino-Korean words based on local readings of Classical Chinese.[288]
Jeju Island was ruled by the Mongols in the late thirteenth century and some Middle Mongol terms still survive in the language, though the extent of Mongol influence is disputed. Popular claims of hundreds of Mongol loans in Jeju are linguistically unsound.[289][290] Uncontroversial Mongol loans are most common in terms relating to animal husbandry.[291]
| English | Jeju | Middle Mongol |
|---|---|---|
| bridle | 가달Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gadal | qada'ar |
| halter | 녹대Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text nokdae | noγta |
| two-year-old cattle | 다간Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text dagan | daγaγan "two-year-old horse" |
| classifier for houses | 거리Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text geori | ger "house" |
Jeju may have loans from an ancient Japonic substratum.[22] As the last fluent generation of Jeju speakers were born under or shortly after Japanese rule, remaining speakers also use many loans from Modern Japanese.[292]
| English | Jeju | Japanese |
|---|---|---|
| noisy | 우르사이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ureusai | うるさいCategory:Articles containing Japanese-language text urusai |
| chopsticks | 하시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text hasi | 箸Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text hashi |
| habit | 쿠세Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kuse | 癖Category:Articles containing Japanese-language text kuse |
Sound symbolism
Jeju has widespread sound symbolism in ideophones.[293] The use of sound symbolism to form emphatic variants of words is more common in Jeju than in Seoul Korean.[294]
Jeju sound symbolism operates with both consonants and vowels. The intensity of a Jeju word may be strengthened by using tense and especially aspirate obstruents.[295][296] The sound symbolism may also be emphasized through the addition of consonants,[297] by adding the sequence -락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text -rak to both reduplicated segments, and with fortition or lenition.[298] The yang harmonic class of vowels has a bright, small connotation, and the yin vowel class gives a dark, large connotation.[299] Ko Jae-hwan also gives examples of three or four layers of vowel sound symbolism.[300]
- Consonant sound symbolism:
- 고시롱Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gosirong "savory" → 꼬시롱Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kkosirong "[very] savory" → 코시롱Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kosirong "[extremely] savory"[301]
- 을강을강Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text eulgang-eulgang "[small] sound of rat gnawing teeth" → 글강글강Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text geulgang-geulgang "[large] sound of rat gnawing teeth"[302]
- ᄇᆞᆯ착ᄇᆞᆯ착Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bawlchak-bawlchak "easily angered" → ᄇᆞᆯ치락ᄇᆞᆯ치락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text bawlchirak-bawlchirak "[very] easily angered"[303]
- 크뜽크뜽Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text keutteung-keutteung "neatly aligned" → 코찡코찡Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kojjing-kojjing "[very] neatly aligned"[aa]
- Vowel sound symbolism:
- 동골동골Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text donggol-donggol "round [of a small object]" → 둥굴둥굴Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text dunggul-dunggul "round [of a large object]"[299]
- ᄋᆞᆼ당ᄋᆞᆼ당Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text awngdang-awngdang "[small and light] sound of muttered complaints" → 옹당옹당Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ongdang-ongdang "[large and heavy] sound of muttered complaints" → 웅당웅당Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ungdang-ungdang "[very large and very heavy] sound of muttered complaints"[306]
- ᄆᆞᆫ들ᄆᆞᆫ들Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawndeul-mawndeul "smooth to the touch [of a very small or dry object]" → 맨들맨들Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text maendeul-maendeul "smooth to the touch [of a somewhat small or dry object]" → 문들문들Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mundeul-mundeul "slippery to the touch [of a somewhat large or wet object]" → 민들민들Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mindeul-mindeul "slippery to the touch [of a very large or wet object]"[307]
Multiple sound-symbolic strategies may combine in a single word. Kang S. 2008 gives eight sound symbolic variants of the ideophone ᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawltak-mawltak "the shape of many objects being blunt", each more intense than the other:[293]
ᄆᆞᆯ탁ᄆᆞᆯ탁Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawltak-mawltak → ᄆᆞᆯ트락ᄆᆞᆯ트락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawlteurak-mawlteurak → ᄆᆞᆯ착ᄆᆞᆯ착Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawlchak-mawlchak → ᄆᆞᆯ치락ᄆᆞᆯ치락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text mawlchirak-mawlchirak → 뫁탁몰탁Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text moltak-moltak → 몰착몰착Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text molchak-molchak → 몰트락몰트락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text molteurak-molteurak → 몰치락몰치락Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text molchirak-molchirak
Kinship terminology
The kinship terminology of Jeju has been the focus of particular attention.[290] Jeju has a complex kinship system that distinguishes the gender of both the speaker and the relative. Gender distinctions are particularly noticeable in sibling terminology. The words 성Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text seong and 아시Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text asi refer to "older same-gender sibling" and "younger same-gender sibling" respectively, while 오라방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text orabang and 누이Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text nui refer specifically to "brother of a female" and "sister of a male" respectively.[308] Female speakers also tend to refer to relatives with native compounds, whereas male speakers prefer Sino-Korean terms. For instance, the same cousin may be referred to by a man as ᄉᆞ춘Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text sawchun "cousin" but by a woman as 고모님 ᄄᆞᆯCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gomo-nim ttawl "paternal aunt's daughter."[309] A major distinction between Jeju and Korean kinship terms is that women do not use honorifics to refer to their in-laws, reflecting weaker historical influence from Confucian patriarchal norms.[310]
Jeju also uses supplementary prefixes to clarify the type of kinship, equivalent to "step-" or "maternal" in English.[311] These include 친-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text chin-, 성-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text seong-, and 당-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text dang- for paternal relations, 웨-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text we- for maternal relations, 다슴-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text daseum- for step-relations,[312] 처-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text cheo- and 가시-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text gasi- for a male's in-laws, and 시-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text si- for a woman's in-laws.[313] Five other prefixes, which may be combined, mark relative age: 쳇-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text chet- or 큰-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text keun- "eldest", 셋-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text set- "second eldest of three or more", 말젯-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text maljet- "third eldest of four or more", and 족은-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jogeun- "youngest". These are used to distinguish relatives of the same generation.[314]
- 하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text hareubang "grandfather"
- 큰하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text keun-hareubang "oldest brother of one's grandfather"
- 셋하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text set-hareubang "second brother of one's grandfather"
- 큰말젯하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text keun-maljet-hareubang "third brother of one's grandfather"
- 셋말젯하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text set-maljet-hareubang "fourth brother of one's grandfather"
- 족은말젯하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jogeun-maljet-hareubang "fifth brother of one's grandfather"
- 족은하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text jogeun-hareubang "youngest brother of one's grandfather"[315][316]
Other prefixes include 왕-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text wang-, used in 왕하르방Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text wang-hareubang "great-grandfather", and 넛-Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text neot-, used to refer to a sibling of one's grandparent generally.[317]
Sample text
The following is an excerpt from a version of the Menggam bon-puri, one of the epic chants recited by Jeju shamans. In this narrative, the poacher Song Saman discovers an abandoned skull in the hills and cares for it as if it were his own ancestor. The skull reciprocates by warning Song Saman of his early death and advising him on how to avoid the chasa, the three gods of death.[318]
This version was transcribed between 1956 and 1963[319] from the recitation of the shaman Byeon Sin-saeng, born c. 1904.[320] The transcription predates both standardized orthographies of Jeju. The transcriber openly notes that the orthography is inconsistent.[321] No attempt was made in this article to standardize or update the orthography.
| Jeju original[322] | Korean translation[ab] |
|---|---|
"느 송ᄉᆞ만이 전맹이 ᄀᆞᆺ 서른이 매기난, 서른 나는 해에 아무ᄃᆞᆯ 아무날은 맹이 매기니 느가 발 살앙 오몽ᄒᆞ여질 때, 나를 낭곳으로 ᄀᆞ져다 도라... 시 ᄆᆞ슬 강 심방 시 개 걷우우곡 마당이 큰대 세왕 두 일회 열나을 굿을 ᄒᆞ라..." 맷딱 ᄎᆞᆯ려놓완 백보 밲겼딜로 간 절을 ᄒᆞ연, ᄀᆞ만이 꿀련 업더져두서 보난 삼체ᄉᆞ가 ᄂᆞ려오멍... "송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이서 정성을 아니드렴신가?" 말자이 오는 체ᄉᆞᆫ "송ᄉᆞ만이네 집이 백년대강이를 모삼따. 그 백년대강이가 송ᄉᆞ만이 심으레 오람센 ᄀᆞᆯ아분 생이여... 받음은 받았주마는 심엉 오랜 ᄒᆞᆫ 시간이 시여부난 어떵흘코?" |
"너 송사만이는 겨우 서른이 수명의 끝이니, 서른 되는 해에는 아무 달 아무 날에 명이 끝날 테이므로 너가 발이 살아서 움직일 수 있을 때 나를 나무숲으로 데려다 달라... 마을 세 곳에 가서 무당 세 명을 모으고 마당에 큰 깃대 세워서 두 이레 열나흘 굿[제주 큰굿]을 하라..." 다 차려놓은 체 백보 바깥으로 가 절하며 가만히 무릎 꿇고 업드리고 보니까, 삼차사가 내려오면서... "송사만이네 집에서 정성을 드리고 있는 것 아닌가?" 나중에 오는 차사는, "송사만이네 집에서 백년 된 해골을 모시고 있다. 그 백년 된 해골이 송사만이 잡으러 오고 있다고 말해버린 모양이야... 준 건 받았지만 잡아 오라고 한 마감이 있는데 어떻게 할까?" |
| Romanization[ac] | |
| neu Song Sawman-i jeonmaeng-i gawt seoreun-i maeg-inan, seoreun naneun hae-e amu dawl amu nar-eun maeng-i maeg-ini neu-ga bal sarang omong-hawyeo-jil ttae, na-reul nang-gos-euro gawjyeoda dora... si mawseul gang simbang si gae geoduugok madang-i keun dae sewang du ilhwe yeol-naeul gus-eul hawra... maetttak chawllyeo-nowan baekbo baekgyeot-dillo gan jeor-eul hawyeon, gawmani kkulyeon eopdeojyeo-duseo bonan samchesaw-ga nawryeo-omeong... "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-iseo jeongseong-eul ani deuryeomsin'ga?" Maljai oneun chesaw-n "Song Sawman-i-ne jib-i baengnyeon-daegang'i-reul mosamtta. geu baengnyeon-daegang'i-ga Song Sawman-i simeure oramsen gawra-bun saeng-iyeo... badeum-eun badat-jumaneun simeong oraen hawn sigan-i siyeo-bunan eotteong-heulko?" | |
| English | |
| "You, Song Saman, your life will end at only thirty, and the year you turn thirty, your life will end at any day of any month, so take me to the wooded forest while your feet are still alive and you can move... Go to three villages and gather three shamans and raise a great flagstaff in the household hall, and hold the Great Gut [lit. 'the gut of two weeks and fourteen days']..."
Once they laid out everything, [Song Sawman and his wife] went back a hundred steps and prostrated themselves. Quietly kneeling and lying prone, they saw the three chasa descend... "Are they not doing devotional acts at Song Saman's household?" The chasa coming in last [responded], "At Song Saman's household, they are worshipping a hundred-year-old skull. It seems that the hundred-year-old skull told [them] that we were coming to capture Song Sawman... We have partaken of the offerings [lit. 'received what is received'], but there is a date that they told us to capture him by, so what should we do?" | |
See also
- Bon-puri, Jeju-language narrative poems explaining the origins of deities.
Notes
- ↑ 제주어 보전 및 육성 조례; Jeju-eo bojeon mit yukseong jorye
- ↑ The term "first and second generations" as used here refers to Jeju speakers born in Jeju, though now living in Japan (the first generation), and to their children who were born in Japan (the second generation).
- ↑ 안무어사Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; anmueosaCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text
- ↑ 제주어보존회Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; Jeju-eo bojon-hoeCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text
- ↑ 제주방언연구회Category:Articles containing Korean-language text; Jeju bang'eon yeon'gu-hoeCategory:Articles containing Korean-language text
- ↑ In syllable-final position only
- ↑ Other than /p͈/Category:Pages with plain IPA[79]
- ↑ The only kCategory:Pages with plain IPA-irregular verb
- ↑ As given in Yang C, Yang S., & O'Grady 2019[91]
- ↑ /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA merges with /o/Category:Pages with plain IPA in the initial syllable and with /ə/Category:Pages with plain IPA in non-initial ones. An apparent fronting of /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA to /a/Category:Pages with plain IPA, seen in heritage speakers born in the 1980s, is not a genuine Jeju development but simply interference from Standard Korean, where /a/Category:Pages with plain IPA is cognate to Jeju /ɒ/Category:Pages with plain IPA.[96]
- ↑ Excluding the liquid consonant /l/Category:Pages with plain IPA[112]
- ↑ Parts in parentheses are omitted following vowels
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 also classifies -(i)seo and -ra/re as nominative particles, but Kim Jee-hong points out that they are restricted in use and can be topicalized, and should thus be seen as nominative constructions that rely on non-nominative morphemes.
- 1 2 3 Initial segment also lost after liquid consonant -lCategory:Pages with plain IPA
- ↑ Some vowel-final stems take -gwang
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Initial vowel -eu- has epenthetical vowel allomorphs
- ↑ According to the segmentation of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019. May also be segmented as
See section Tense-marking.gai
3SG
jire-ga
height-NOM
keu-keu-ra
grow-PROSP-SE
- ↑ According to the segmentation of Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019. May also be segmented as
See section Tense-marking.gai
3SG
jire-ga
height-NOM
keu-keu-ra
grow-PROSP-SE
- ↑ In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation, -nya is two morphemes.
- ↑ In Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019's segmentation, -nya is two morphemes.
- ↑ Called "formative" by Kim Jee-hong
- ↑ Kim Jee-hong 2015 classifies all endings that can be followed by the deferential marker massim as informal, but Kim Jee-hong 2017 does so only for non-canonical endings.
- 1 2 3 Initial vowel -eu- is always epenthetical in these examples.
- 1 2 3 Parentheses mark differences in segmentation between Yang C., Yang S., and O'Grady 2019 and Kim Jee-hong. Notably, Kim Jee-hong does not analyze the vowel -i- following aspect markers as an epenthetical vowel but as a separate morpheme.[214]
- 1 2 Vowel harmony
- 1 2 3 4 5 감/감수 instead of government-orthography 가ᇝ/가ᇝ우 in original source
- ↑ Given with 크Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text keu, 코Category:Articles containing Jejueo-language text ko in Kang S. 2008,[304] but both forms given with ᄏᆞCategory:Articles containing Jejueo-language text kaw in the 2009 Dictionary of the Jeju Language[305]
- ↑ Based on glosses and cognates of Jeju provided in Chin S. 1991; Chin gives one-to-one definitions or Standard Korean cognates of most Jeju terms not immediately identifiable by a Korean speaker, but does not actually translate the text into fluent Standard Korean
- ↑ Nouns are hyphenated from their particles, and compounds are hyphenated between their components, but the verbal morphology is not hyphenated.
References
Citations
- ↑ Jeju at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only contentCategory:Language articles citing Ethnologue 18
- ↑ Olko, Justyna; Sallabank, Julia (29 April 2021). Revitalizing Endangered Languages: A Practical Guide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48575-3.
- ↑ Stonham, John (2011). "Middle Korean Δ and the Cheju dialect". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 74 (1): 97–118. ISSN 0041-977X. Retrieved 31 December 2024.
- 1 2 Ko J. 2011a, pp. 259–270.
- ↑ Lee, Seungjae (2017). The old Korean Language Inscribed on Wooden Tablets (in Korean). Seoul, Korea: Ilchokak. ISBN 9788933707364.Category:CS1 Korean-language sources (ko)
- ↑ Cho T.-r. 2014, p. 124.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 4.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 119–229, summarized with some variation (e.g. analysis of -neun as a single morpheme) in Yang S. 2020
- 1 2 Kim, Soung-u (2018). "A multi-modal documentation of Jejuan conversations". Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 5.
- ↑ Cho T.-r. 2014, pp. 123–126.
- ↑ Cho T.-r. 2014, pp. 129–130.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019.
- ↑ Yang C. et al. 2019.
- ↑ Kim B. 2014, p. 120.
- ↑ Choi M. 1998, p. 16.
- ↑ Kim B. 2014.
- ↑ Choi M. 1998, p. 25.
- ↑ Ko J. et al. 2014, p. 214.
- ↑ Kim S. 2010.
- ↑ Kim S. 2010, p. 271.
- 1 2 Vovin 2013, pp. 236–237.
- ↑ O'Grady, William; Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung (2022), Whitman, John; Cho, Sungdai (eds.), "Jejueo: Korea's Other Language", The Cambridge Handbook of Korean Linguistics, Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 717–748, ISBN 978-1-108-41891-1, retrieved 2 May 2024
- ↑ Yang C. 2014, pp. 1–2.
- ↑ Lee K. & Ramsey 2011, pp. 159–160.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 6.
- 1 2 Yang C. 2014, pp. 2–4.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 3.
- ↑ Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (2020). Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7443-8. JSTOR j.ctvwvr2qt.
- ↑ Sang-Hun, Choe (28 May 2019). "Memories of Massacres Were Long Suppressed Here. Tourists Now Retrace the Atrocities. (Published 2019)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ Cummings 2005, pp. 219–221.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 12.
- ↑ Yang C. 2014, pp. 5–7.
- 1 2 3 Brenzinger & Yang C. 2017.
- ↑ Yang C. 2014, pp. 7–8.
- ↑ Lee J. 1981, pp. 569–573.
- ↑ Kang Y.-h. 1994, pp. 90–117.
- ↑ Kang Y.-h. 1994, pp. 117–139.
- ↑ Kang Y.-h. 1994, p. 115.
- ↑ Kang Y.-h. 1994, pp. 87–88.
- ↑ UNESCO 2010.
- ↑ UNESCO 2017.
- 1 2 Shields, Steven (31 December 2019). "Studying Jeju Island's endangered language". The Korea Times. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- 1 2 3 Yang, Sejung (22 March 2017). "Teaching Jejueo on Jeju Island 제주어 교육 – Jejueo". sites.google.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ Santos, Luis Miguel Dos; Lo, Ho Fai; Kwee, Ching Ting Tany (31 October 2023). "Islanders Come Back to the Mainland: Social Identity in the People of Jeju in Mainland Korea". Island Studies Journal. Early access. doi:10.24043/001c.88050.Category:CS1: long volume value
- ↑ Saltzman 2014, pp. 25–26.
- ↑ "In Osaka... some fluent speakers are as young as 45" (p.9). Saltzman 2014, pp. 1–2, 9, 32–33, 39–40, 43–44, 53–54, 58–59, 67
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2008, pp. 16–18.
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2010.
- ↑ Yang S. 2018, pp. 111–113.
- ↑ Santos, Luis Miguel Dos; Lo, Ho Fai; Kwee, Ching Ting Tany (31 October 2023). "Islanders Come Back to the Mainland: Social Identity in the People of Jeju in Mainland Korea". Island Studies Journal. Early access. doi:10.24043/001c.88050.Category:CS1: long volume value
- ↑ "Distinct dialect of Jeju threatened with extinction". The Korea Times. 14 October 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ Kwak & You 2019, p. 44.
- ↑ NIKL 2015, p. 98.
- ↑ 듣기 좋다Category:Articles containing Korean-language text deutgi jota. Kim S. 2019, pp. 10–11
- ↑ Kim S. 2019, p. 23.
- ↑ Kim S. 2019, pp. 21–22.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 278–289.
- ↑ Yang C. 2016, pp. 152–154.
- ↑ Kim J.-e. 2019.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 278.
- ↑ Jeju Province 2019a, pp. 492–493.
- ↑ Jeju Province 2019b, pp. 312–313.
- ↑ Jeju Province 2019a, pp. 504–505.
- ↑ Brenzinger & Yang C. 2017, p. 192.
- ↑ Yang S. 2014, pp. 7–8.
- 1 2 3 "Concerted efforts for the revitalization of Jeju language | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 1 December 2020.
- ↑ Jeju Province 2019a, pp. 505–506.
- 1 2 Jeju Province 2019a, pp. 508–510.
- ↑ Jeju Province 2019b, pp. 507–508.
- ↑ Hagino, Makoto (June 2016). "The legal concept of 'heritage' in the world heritage convention: The case of Yakushima, Island". Journal of Marine and Island Cultures. 5 (1): 11–13. doi:10.1016/j.imic.2016.06.001. ISSN 2212-6821.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 22–23.
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2018, pp. 12–14.
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2018, pp. 19–27.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 15, 18.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 16–18.
- ↑ Cho T.-h., Jun & Ladefoged 2000, p. 137.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 17, 24–25.
- 1 2 3 Ko J. 2011a, p. 23.
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2018, pp. 23–25.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 25–27.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 62–66.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 62–75.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 27–31, 36.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 27–36.
- 1 2 Ko J. 2011a, pp. 170–179, 182–189.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 29–30.
- ↑ Kang Y.-b. 2018, pp. 25–27.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 122.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 41–42, 46–48, 66–68.
- 1 2 3 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 18–19.
- ↑ Lee K. & Ramsey 2011, pp. 262–264.
- ↑ Kim W. 2004.
- ↑ Moon S. et al. 2015, pp. 65–66.
- ↑ Moon S. et al. 2015, pp. 66–69.
- 1 2 Ko D. 2008.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 19–20.
- ↑ Ko D. 2008, p. 65.
- ↑ Cho T.-h. et al. 2000, p. 10.
- ↑ Shin W. & Shin J. 2012, pp. 83–87.
- ↑ Moon S. et al. 2015, pp. 82–83.
- ↑ Moon S. et al. 2015, pp. 80, 90.
- ↑ Kim W. 2005.
- 1 2 Ko J. 2011a, p. 49.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 20–21.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 84.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 28.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 96–97.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 106–108.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 94–95.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 34.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, p. 33.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 35–36.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 34–36.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 94–97, 106–108.
- ↑ Ko D. 1997, pp. 10–15, 22–27.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 32.
- ↑ Ko D. 1997, pp. 42–43.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 21.
- ↑ Dictionary 2009.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 17–18.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 21–22.
- ↑ Lee S. 2014.
- ↑ Shin W. 2015.
- ↑ Ko M. et al. 2007, pp. 37–38.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 345, passim.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 11.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 37, 42–45.
- 1 2 Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 45–63.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 87–88, 240–241.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 48–49.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 45–46.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 46.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 46–48.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 74–78.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 50, 57.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 373.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 50–52.
- 1 2 Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 37–39.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 142.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 53.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 39–42.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 49, 53.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 65.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 48.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 54–55.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 61.
- ↑ Moon S. & Kim W. 2017, pp. 66–68.
- ↑ Saltzman 2014, pp. 55–56.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 55–57.
- ↑ Moon S. 2002, pp. 75–76.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 57–60.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 42–47.
- ↑ Moon S. & Kim W. 2017, pp. 64–65.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 57.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 147.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, p. 110.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 63.
- ↑ "이들 격조사는 오직 어감의 차이가 있을 뿐, 의미 차이가 전혀 없이 마음대로 바꿔 쓸 수 있다." Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 58
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 62.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 93–94.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 44–45, 116.
- ↑ Dictionary 2009, p. 475.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 103–104.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 231.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 231–232.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 232.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 233.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, p. 170.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 234.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011b, pp. 9–10.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 120.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 128–129.
- ↑ Ko J. et al. 2014, pp. 144–147, 164.
- ↑ Ko J. et al. 2014, pp. 168–176.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 196–197.
- ↑ Ko Y. 2008, p. 125.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 184–187.
- ↑ Hong C. 2001, pp. 291–293.
- ↑ Ko Y. 2008, pp. 107–110.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 124–126.
- ↑ Ko Y. 2008, p. 115.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 175–176, 199–200.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 144.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 124.
- ↑ Woo C. 2008, pp. 71–72.
- 1 2 3 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 128.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 195–196.
- ↑ Woo C. 2005, pp. 399–400.
- ↑ Ko J. et al. 2014, p. 164.
- ↑ Woo C. 2005, p. 387.
- ↑ Ko Y. 2008, p. 123.
- ↑ Ko J. et al. 2014, p. 154.
- ↑ "지체가 높은 사람을 대하는 관료층과 식자층의 선비들" Ko J. 2011b, p. 22
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 76–395, summarized in English with some variation in Kim Jee-h. 2017
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 130–142.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 162–165, 230.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 138.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 170.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 188.
- 1 2 Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 106–109.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2017, pp. 237–249.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2017, pp. 239–240.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 128.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 172–175.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 223, 349.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 147.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 147–148, 193–198.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 161.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 78.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 233–236.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 100–101.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2017, pp. 239–241, 245, 248.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 181–186.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 167–168.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 128–131.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 180–182.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 143–145.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 187–188.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 197–198.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 171–172.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 219–221.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 94.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 175–177.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 113–116.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 177–179.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 116–121.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 174.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 87–91, 263–264, 375–358.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 190.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 368–371.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 194–196.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 240–244, 275–278.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 196–197.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 275–278.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 193–194.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 296–301.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 205–206.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 389–390.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 206–207.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 381.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 207–208.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 386–387.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011b, pp. 342–347, 379–385.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 218–219.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 97–99.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 217–226.
- 1 2 Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 228–235.
- 1 2 Ko J. 2011b, p. 321.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 208–217.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, pp. 100–103.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 230.
- ↑ Hong C. 2001, pp. 276–286.
- ↑ Song S. 2011, pp. 35–49.
- ↑ Hong C. 2001, pp. 295–297.
- ↑ Song S. 2011, pp. 19–30.
- ↑ Song S. 2011, pp. 6–9.
- ↑ Hong C. 2001, p. 299.
- ↑ Hong C. 2001, pp. 271–272.
- ↑ Song S. 2011, pp. vi–vii.
- 1 2 Kim M. 2019, pp. 35–39, 44–49.
- ↑ Kim M. 2019, pp. 39–43.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 255–256, 262–265.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 96–101.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 99.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 101–103.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 153–160.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 227–229.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 227–228.
- ↑ Moon S. 2005a, pp. 3–7.
- ↑ Moon S. 2003, pp. 72–80.
- ↑ Yang C. & Kim W. 2013, pp. 157–160.
- ↑ Moon S. 2003, pp. 80–82.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 228–229.
- ↑ Moon S. 2003, pp. 72, 80.
- ↑ Moon S. 2005a, p. 11.
- ↑ Yang C. 2009, pp. 22–24.
- ↑ Moon S. 2005a, pp. 9–10.
- ↑ Yang C. 2009, pp. 202–201.
- ↑ Moon S. 2005b, pp. 164–171.
- ↑ Yang C. 2009, p. 21.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 85–89.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 83.
- ↑ Kim Jee-h. 2015, p. 398.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 190–191.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 135–136.
- 1 2 Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 9–10.
- ↑ Ko D. et al. 2015, pp. 74–78.
- ↑ Kwon S. 2017, pp. 54–55.
- 1 2 Jeju Province 2019a, p. 481.
- ↑ Kwon S. 2017, pp. 55–62.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 348–350.
- 1 2 Kang S. 2008, p. 2.
- ↑ Kang S. 2008, p. 4.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 251–252.
- ↑ Kang S. 2008, pp. 10–12.
- ↑ Kang S. 2008, pp. 5–6.
- ↑ Kang S. 2008, pp. 5, 7, 9.
- 1 2 Ko J. 2011a, p. 250.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 255–258.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 252.
- ↑ Dictionary 2009, p. 110.
- ↑ Dictionary 2009, p. 478.
- ↑ Kang S. 2008, p. 7.
- ↑ Dictionary 2009, p. 840.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 255.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 258.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 38–39.
- ↑ Kim M. 2010, pp. 40, 43.
- ↑ Kim M. 2010, pp. 34, 40, 43.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 40–42.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 40.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, p. 274.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, pp. 41–42.
- ↑ Yang C., Yang S. & O'Grady 2019, p. 42.
- ↑ Ko J. 2011a, pp. 281–282.
- ↑ Kim M. 2010, pp. 30–31.
- ↑ Chin S. 1991, pp. 169–175.
- ↑ Chin S. 1991, p. 39.
- ↑ Chin S. 1991, p. 175.
- ↑ "제주도의 발음으로서의 일률적인 통일 역시 이루지 않았고... 한 사람의 발음이 같은 뜻을 지니면서 다소 틀림이 있는 경우일지라도 이것 역시 발음 그대로를 표기했다." Chin S. 1991, p. 39
- ↑ Chin S. 1991, pp. 173–174.
Bibliography
English
- Brenzinger, Matthias; Yang, Changyong (September 2017). "Jejueo of South Korea". In Seals, Corinne A.; Shah, Sheena (eds.). Heritage Language Policies around the World. Routledge. pp. 185–199. ISBN 9781317274049.
- Cho, Taehong; Jun, Sun-Ah; Jung, Seung-chul; Ladefoged, Peter (March 2000). "The Vowels of Cheju". UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics. 98: 81–94. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.552.4474. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- Cho, Taehong; Jun, Sun-Ah; Ladefoged, Peter (March 2000). "An Acoustic and Aerodynamic Study of Consonants in Cheju". Speech Sciences. 7: 109–137. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
- Cummings, Bruce (17 September 2005). Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History (Updated ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393347531.
- Kim, Jee-hong (2017). "Non-canonical Ending Systems in Jeju Korean". 방언학. 26: 229–259. doi:10.19069/kordialect.2017.26.229. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- Kwak, Saebom; You, Seok-Hoon (February 2019). "Analysis of Koreans' Overt and Covert Language Attitudes towards Jeju Dialect". Language Information. 29: 26–54. doi:10.35128/rili.2019.29.2. S2CID 210462615. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
- Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, S. Robert (2011). A History of the Korean Language. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1394-9448-9.
- Saltzman, Moira (August 2014). Language Contact and Morphological Change in Jejueo (MA). Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University. Retrieved 20 May 2020.Category:All articles with dead external linksCategory:Articles with dead external links from October 2024Category:Articles with permanently dead external links[permanent dead link]
- Vovin, Alexander (2010). Koreo-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of Common Genetic Origin. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3278-0.Vovin, Alexander (2013). "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240. doi:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
- Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (October 2019). Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 9780824874438.
- Yang, Changyong; O'Grady, William; Yang, Sejung; Hilton, Nanna Haug; Kang, Sang-gu; Kim, So-young (2019). "Revising the Language Map of Korea". In Brunn, Stanley D.; Kehrein, Roland (eds.). Handbook of the Changing World Language Map. Springer International Publishing. pp. 215–230. ISBN 9783030024376.
- Yang, Sejung (November 2014). Teaching Jejueo: Present Problems and Future Plans (PDF). 7th World Congress of Korean Studies. Honolulu, Hawaii.Category:All articles with dead external linksCategory:Articles with dead external links from March 2023Category:Articles with permanently dead external links[permanent dead link]
- ————— (December 2018). Assessing Language Knowledge in Jeju: Vocabulary and Verbal Patterns in Jejueo and English (PDF) (PhD). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
- ————— (2020). "Resegmentation of Tense-Aspect Markers in Jejueo, the Traditional Language of Jeju Island" (PDF). The Linguistic Association of Korea Journal. 28 (1): 65–78. doi:10.24303/lakdoi.2020.28.1.65. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
- "New interactive atlas adds two more endangered languages". unesco.org. 8 December 2010. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
- "Jeju, UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger". unesco.org. 11 June 2017. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
Korean
- 강석한 (Kang Seok-han) (November 2008). "Jeju Hangug-eo-ui gangjo jungcheob-eo-e natanan jaeum eum-byeonhwa yangsang yeon'gu" 제주 한국어의 강조 중첩어에 나타난 자음 음변화 양상 연구 [The Consonant Change Pattern of Emphatic Reduplication in Cheju Korean]. 언어학 연구. 13: 1–16.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 강영봉 (Kang Young-bong) (2008). Jeju jiyeog-eo saengtae jisu josa bogoseo 제주 지역어 생태 지수 조사 보고서 [Report on the Vitality Quotient of the Jeju Regional Language] (Report). National Institute of the Korean Language.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (2010). Jeju-do-min-ui Jeju-eo sayong siltae josa bogoseo: jung·godeung-haksaeng-eul daesang-euro 제주도민의 제주어 사용 실태 조사 보고서: 중·고등학생을 대상으로 [Report on the Use of the Jeju Language by Jeju Islanders: Focusing on Middle and High School Students] (Report). 제주대학교 국어문화원 (Center for Korean Language and Culture, Jeju National University).Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (16 June 2018). Jeju-eo pyogi-beob-e daehan dansang '제주어 표기법'에 대한 단상 [Brief Thoughts on "Jeju Language Orthography"] (PDF). 제주어 표기법 토론회 (Debate on the Orthography of the Jeju Language). Jeju City, Jeju.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 강윤희 (Kang Yoon-hee) (1994). "Jeju sahoe-eseo du bang'eon sayong-e daehan minjok-ji-jeok yeon'gu" 제주사회에서의 두 방언 사용에 대한 민족지적 연구 [An Ethnographic Study on Bidialectalism in Cheju Society]. 제주도연구. 11: 83–146. ISSN 1229-7569.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고동호 (Ko Dong-ho) (December 1997). "Jeju bang'eon-ui moeum johwa yeon'gu" 제주 방언의 모음 조화 연구 [Vowel harmony in the Cheju dialect]. 언어학. 21: 3–48. ISSN 1229-4039. Retrieved 12 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (30 June 2008). "Jeju bang'eon 'arae-a'-ui sidae-byeol byeonhwa yangsang" 제주 방언 'ㆍ'의 세대별 변화 양상 [Changes of /ㆍ/ in the Jeju dialect in apparent time]. 한국언어문학. 65: 55–74. ISSN 1229-1730. Retrieved 11 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고동호 (Ko Dong-ho); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun) (December 2015). Jejut-mar-ui ihae 제줏말의 이해 [Understanding the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원. ISBN 978-89-6010-440-2.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고미숙 (Ko Mi-Sook); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 변길자 (Byun Giljia); 김종훈 (Kim Jong-hoon); 박순복 (Park Soon-bok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung) (September 2007). "Jeju bang'eon-ui yeollyeongdae-byeol eogyang-gu gyeonggye-seongjo yeon'gu" 제주방언의 연령대별 억양구 경계성조 연구 [Age-related differences in the boundary tone patterns of intonational phrases in the Jeju dialect]. 언어과학연구. 42: 27–43. ISSN 1229-0343. Retrieved 14 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고영진 (Ko Young-jin) (June 2008). "Jeju-do bang'eon-ui hyeongtaeron-jeok sang beomju-ui chegye-hwa-reul wihayeo" 제주도 방언의 형태론적 상 범주의 체계화를 위하여 [For the Study of the Morphological Aspect System in Cheju Dialect]. 한글. 280: 101–128. ISSN 1225-0449. Retrieved 23 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan) (9 September 2011). Jeju-eo gaeron sang 제주어개론 상 [Introduction to Jeju, Volume I]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사. ISBN 978-89-8433-934-7.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (9 September 2011). Jeju-eo gaeron ha 제주어개론 하 [Introduction to Jeju, Volume II]. Seongbuk-gu, Seoul: 보고사. ISBN 978-89-8433-935-4.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 고재환 (Ko Jae-hwan); 송상조 (Song Sang-jo); 김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myung); 오승훈 (Oh Seung-hun); 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (November 2014). Jeju-eo pyogi-beop haeseol 제주어 표기법 해설 [Exposition of the Orthography of the Jeju Language]. Jeju City, Jeju: 제주발전연구원. ISBN 978-89-6010-387-0.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 권성훈 (Kwon Seong-hun) (February 2017). "Jeju bang'eon sog'eui Mongol-eo chayong-eo" 제주방언 속의 몽골어 차용어 [Mongol Loanwords in Jeju Dialect]. 동악어문학. 70: 53–67. ISSN 1229-4306. Retrieved 20 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 김미진 (Kim Mi-jin) (August 2010). "Jeju-do bang'eon-ui chinjog-eo yeon'gu—yeoseong hawaja-reul jungsim-euro" 제주도 방언의 친족어 연구—여성 화자를 중심으로 [Study on the Kinship terms of JeJu dialect— Focused on female speakers]. 영주어문. 20: 27–41. ISSN 1598-9011. Retrieved 20 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (February 2019). "Jeju bang'eon-ui inyong pyoji yeon'gu" 제주 방언의 인용 표지 연구 [A study on quotation marker of Jeju dialect]. 영주어문. 41: 29–55. doi:10.30774/yjll.2019.02.41.29. ISSN 1598-9011. S2CID 187483331. Retrieved 27 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 김보향 (Kim Bo-hyang) (August 2014). "Osaka Ikuno-ku jiyeok jaeil-Jeju-in-ui Jeju bang'eon sayong siltae-e gwanhan yeon'gu" 오사카 이쿠노쿠 지역 재일제주인의 제주방언 사용 실태에 관한 연구 [A Study on the Jeju Dialect Used by Jeju People Living in Ikuno-ku, Osaka, Japan] (PDF). 영주어문. 28: 111–136. ISSN 1598-9011. Retrieved 14 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)Category:All articles with dead external linksCategory:Articles with dead external links from March 2023Category:Articles with permanently dead external links[permanent dead link]
- 김순자 (Kim Sun-ja) (December 2010). Jeju-do bang'eon-ui eoneo-jiri-hak-jeok yeon'gu 제주도방언의 언어지리학적 연구 [A Geolinguistic Study on the Jeju Dialect] (PhD). Jeju National University.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (August 2019). "Jeju-do bang'eon-e daehan bang'eon taedo chui yeon'gu" 제주도 방언에 대한 방언 태도 추이 연구 [A Study on Changes in Attitude to Jeju Dialect]. 한국어학. 84: 1–34. ISSN 1226-9123. Retrieved 17 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2004). "Jeju bang'eon-eseo arae-a eum-ui eumhyang-bunseok" 제주 방언에서 [ㆍ] 음의 음향분석 [On the Acoustic Analysis of the Vowel [ㆍ] in Jeju Dialect]. 언어학연구. 9 (1): 73–90. ISSN 1229-0343. Retrieved 11 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (December 2005). "Jeju bang'eon ijung-moeum-ui eumhyang-bunseok" 제주방언 이중모음의 음향분석 [The Acoustic Analysis of the Diphthongs in Jeju Dialect]. 음성과학. 12 (2): 29–41. ISSN 1226-5276. Retrieved 11 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 김정은 (Kim Jeong-eun) (24 February 2019). "10년 성과 바탕...제주어 정립". Jeju Sinbo 제주신보. Jeju City, Jeju. Retrieved 17 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 김지홍 (Kim Jee-hong) (20 July 2015). Jeju bang'eon-ui tongsa gisul-gwa seolmyeong: gibon-gumun-ui gineung-beomju bunseok 제주 방언의 통사 기술과 설명: 기본구문의 기능범주 분석 [Explanation and Description of the Syntax of the Jeju Dialect: Analysis of the Functional Categories of the Basic Syntax]. Gwangmyeong, Gyeonggi-do: 도서출판 경진. ISBN 978-89-5996-474-1.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (September 2016). "Jeju bang'eon-ui seon-eomal-eomi-wa jonggyeol-eomi chegye" 제주 방언의 선어말어미와 종결어미 체계 [On Prefinal and Final Ending Systems in Jeju Korean]. 한글. 313: 109–171. ISSN 1225-0449. Retrieved 23 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok) (2002). "Jeju bang'eon-ui bojo-josa-ui damhwa gineung" 제주 방언 보조조사의 담화 기능 [The Discourse Functions of Auxiliary Noun Markers in the Jeju Dialect]. 영주어문. 4: 71–84. ISSN 1598-9011. Retrieved 21 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (February 2003). "Jeju bang'eon banmal-che cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung" 제주 방언 반말체 첨사의 담화 기능 [The Discourse Functions of Informal-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect]. 영주어문. 5: 71–86. ISSN 1598-9011. Retrieved 27 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (February 2005). "Jeju bang'eon nopim-mal cheomsa-ui damhwa gineung" 제주 방언 높임말 첨사의 담화 기능 [The Discourse Functions of Honorific-style Particles in the Jeju Dialect]. 언어 연구. 20 (3): 1–17. ISSN 1225-4770. Retrieved 27 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (September 2005). "Jeju bang'eon-ui gantu pyohyeon" 제주 방언의 간투 표현 [Interjectional Expressions in Jeju Dialect]. 한글. 269: 161–188. doi:10.22557/HG.2005.09.269.161. ISSN 1225-0449. Retrieved 27 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 오창명 (Oh Chang-myeong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo); 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (2015). Jeju-eo pyogi-beop jamo-ui silje bareum-gwa eumseong bunseok yeon'gu '제주어 표기법'자모의 실제 발음과 음성 분석 연구 [The Actual Pronunciations of Vowels and Consonants Acknowledged in the Transcription Regulation for the Jeju Language and their Phonetic Analysis Study] (Report). Center for Jeju Studies, Jeju Development Institute, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 문순덕 (Moon Soon-deok); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (August 2017). "Jeju bang'eon gyeok-josa-ui damhwa gineung" 제주 방언 격조사의 담화 기능 [The Discourse Functions of Noun Case Markers in the Jeju Dialect]. 언어학연구. 22 (2): 55–70. doi:10.21291/jkals.2017.22.2.4. ISSN 1226-9859. Retrieved 21 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 송상조 (Song Sang-jo) (30 September 2011). Jeju-mal-eseo ttae-garim-so '-ng, -n'-gwa ssi-kkeut-deul-ui hoeung 제주말에서 때가림소 '-ㅇ, -ㄴ'과 씨끝들의 호응 [The Interaction between Tense-differentiating Morphemes "-ng, -n" and Enders]. Seongdong-gu, Seoul: 한국문화사. ISBN 978-89-5726-906-0.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong) (October 2015). "Jeju-bang'eon pyeongseo-mun-gwa uimun-mun-e natananeun eogyang yeon'gu: eomal-eomi '-an/-eon, -eumen'-eul jungsim-euro" 제주방언 평서문과 의문문에 나타나는 억양 연구: 어말어미 '-안/언, -으멘'을 중심으로 [Intonation study of predicate ending and interrogative ending in Jeju dialect: "-ʌn/ɑn, -ɯmɛn"]. 영주어문. 31: 87–109. ISSN 1598-9011. Retrieved 14 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 신우봉 (Shin Woo-bong); 신지영 (Shin Ji-young) (August 2012). "Jeju bang'eon dan-moeum-e daehan eumhyang-eumseong-hak-jeok yeon'gu" 제주 방언 단모음에 대한 음향음성학적 연구 [An Acoustic Phonetic Study on Monophthongs in Jeju Korean]. 한국어학. 56: 63–90. ISSN 1226-9123. Retrieved 11 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 양창용 (Yang Changyong) (June 2009). "Jeju-bang'eon yang-e daehan tongsa·damhwa-ron-jeok gochal" 제주방언 '양'에 대한 통사·담화론적 고찰 [A study on "yang" in Jeju dialect with a special reference to its distributions and some discourse functions]. 한국언어문학. 69: 5–28. ISSN 1229-1730. Retrieved 27 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (November 2014). Jeju-eo: yeoksa geurigo taedo 제주어: 역사 그리고 태도 [Jejueo: History and Attitudes] (PDF). 7th World Congress of Korean Studies. Honolulu, Hawaii.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)Category:All articles with dead external linksCategory:Articles with dead external links from March 2023Category:Articles with permanently dead external links[permanent dead link]
- ——— (June 2016). "Jeju-eo-ui yeon'gu hyeonhwang-gwa gwaje" 제주어의 연구 현황과 과제 [Understanding of Status Quo of Jejueo in Language Community of Jeju]. 동서인문학. 51: 131–159. ISSN 1738-9615. Retrieved 17 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 양창용 (Yang Changyong); 김원보 (Kim Won-bo) (May 2013). "Jeju-eo ge-ui damhwa-jeok gineung-e daehan gochal" 제주어 '게'의 담화적 기능에 대한 고찰 [A study on the discourse functions of "key" in the Jeju language]. 언어와 언어학. 59: 143–163.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 우창헌 (Woo Chang-hyun) (September 2005). "Jeju bang'eon-ui '-neu-'-e daehayeo" 제주 방언의 '-느-'에 대하여 [On "-neu-" in the Jeju dialect]. 형태론. 7 (2): 387–402.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- ——— (June 2008). "Bang'eon munbeop hyengtae yeon'gu bangbeop-Jeju-bang'eon seon-eomal-eomi '-keu-'-reul jungsim-euro" 방언 문법 형태 연구 방법-제주방언 선어말어미 '-크-'를 중심으로- [On the Study Method of a Dialect Grammar Form]. 방언학. 7: 57–74. ISSN 1738-8686. Retrieved 23 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 이숙향 (Lee Sook-hyang) (December 2014). "Jeju-eo gangse-gu-ui eogyang" 제주어 강세구의 억양 [The intonation patterns of accentual phrase in Jeju dialect]. 말소리와 음성과학. 6 (4): 117–123. ISSN 2005-8063. Retrieved 14 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 이정민 (Lee Jeong-min) (December 1981). "Hanguk-eo-ui pyojun-eo mit bang'eon-deul sai-ui sangho jeopchok-gwa taedo" 한국어의 표준어 및 방언들 사이의 상호 접촉과 태도 [Language attitude and contacts between Standard Korean and Korean dialects]. 한글. 173: 559–584. ISSN 1225-0449. Retrieved 16 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 조태린 (Cho Tae-rin) (December 2014). "Jeju-eo-wa Jeju-bang'eon, ireum-ui jeongchi-eoneo-hak" 제주어와 제주방언, 이름의 정치언어학 [Jeju language and Jeju dialect, political linguistics of naming]. 어문학. 126: 117–135. ISSN 1225-3774. Retrieved 14 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 진성기 (Chin Song-gi) (30 October 1991). Jeju-do muga bon-puri sajeon 제주도 무가 본풀이 사전 [Encyclopedia of Jeju Bonpuri Shamanic Chants]. Guro-gu, Seoul: 민속원. ISBN 978-89-5638-041-4.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 최명옥 (Choi Myung-ok) (April 1998). "Gugeo-ui bang'eon guhoek" 국어의 방언 구획 [Dialectal Divisions of Korean] (PDF). 새국어생활. 8 (4): 5–29. ISSN 1225-7168. Retrieved 15 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 홍종림 (Hong Chong-rim) (December 2001). "Jeju-bang'eon yeong'gyeol-eomi-ui '-n' '-ŋ'-e daehayeo" 제주방언 연결어미의 "-n" " -ŋ" 에 대하여 [On the Conjunctive Endings -n and -ŋ in the Cheju Dialect]. 국어학. 38: 271–305. ISSN 1225-1933. Retrieved 23 May 2020.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- "Pyojun-eo-wa jiyeok-bang'eon" 표준어와 지역방언 [Standard Korean and Regional Dialects]. 2015-nyeon gukmin-ui eoneo uisik josa 2015년 국민의 언어 의식 조사 [Study of the Language Perceptions of Koreans, 2015] (Report). National Institute of the Korean Language. November 2015. pp. 93–116.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- 제주문화예술재단 (Jeju Foundation for Arts and Culture), ed. (1 December 2009). Gaejeong·jeungbo Jeju-eo sajeon 개정·증보 제주어사전 [Expanded and Revised Jeju Dictionary] (PDF). Jeju City, Jeju: Jeju Special Self-Governing Province. ISBN 978-89-9625-725-7.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- "Jeju-eo bojeon-gwa yukseong hwaldong" 제주어 보전과 육성 활동 [Jeju Language Preservation and Revitalization Efforts]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-il-gwon 제주특별자치도지 제1권 (Report). Jeju Special Self-Governing Province. 2019. pp. 491–512.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
- "Jeju eoneo munhwa" 제주 언어 문화 [Jeju Language Culture]. Jeju Teukbyeol Jachi-do-ji je-sa-gwon 제주특별자치도지 제4권 (Report). Jeju Special Self-Governing Province. 2019. pp. 300–326.Category:CS1 uses Korean-language script (ko)
External links
- jejueo.com: The official Korean-language website of the Jeju Language Preservation Society, the leading language revival organization.
- Jejueo: The Language of Jeju Island: An English-language website maintained by Yang Changyong, Yang Sejung, and William O'Grady, authors of the only English-language monograph on the language. The site includes an audio sample (found in the section "Jejueo Intelligibility Test") and a short Jeju-English dictionary.
- "A multi-modal documentation of Jejuan conversations": An annotated audio-video corpus of spoken Jeju, maintained by the Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London
- Jejuan DoReCo corpus compiled by Soung-U Kim. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.
Jeju City (capital) | ||
| Administrative cities |  | |
| Former counties | ||
| Culture | ||
| History |
| |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
